Vaiśeṣika Sūtra

Vaiśeṣika Sūtra, also called Kanada sutra, is an ancient Sanskrit text at the foundation of the Vaisheshika school of Hindu philosophy.[1][2][3] The sutra was authored by the Hindu sage Kanada, also known as Kashyapa.[4][5] According to some scholars, he flourished before the advent of Buddhism because the Vaiśeṣika Sūtra makes no mention of Buddhism or Buddhist doctrines;[6] however, the details of Kanada's life are uncertain,[7] and the Vaiśeṣika Sūtra was likely compiled sometime between 6th and 2nd century BCE,[8][9] and finalized in the currently existing version before the start of the common era.[10]

A number of scholars have commented on it since the beginning of common era; the earliest commentary known is the Padartha Dharma Sangraha of Prashastapada.[11][12] Another important secondary work on Vaiśeṣika Sūtra is Maticandra's Dasha padartha sastra which exists both in Sanskrit and its Chinese translation in 648 CE by Yuan-chwang.[13]

The Vaiśeṣika Sūtra is written in aphoristic sutras style,[14] and presents its theories on the creation and existence of the universe using naturalistic atomism,[15] applying logic and realism, and is one of the earliest known systematic realist ontology in human history.[16] The text discusses the meaning of dharma, the importance of the Vedas, a theory of epistemology, the basis of Atman (self, soul), and the nature of yoga and moksha.[17][18][19]

Etymology

The name Vaiśeṣika Sūtra (Sanskrit: वैशेषिक सूत्र) is derived from Viśeṣa, which many medieval era scholars such as Gunaratna and modern scholars such as Karl Potter translate as "ultimate particularity".[20] However, other scholars such as Udayana and Wilhelm Halbfass state that the contextual root Viśeṣa in this school refers to "pluralism and particularity, or more specifically to demarcation, characterization and differentiation".[20]

Manuscripts

Till the 1950s, only one manuscript of Vaiseshika sutra was known and this manuscript was part of a bhasya by the 15th century Sankaramisra.[21] Scholars had doubted its authenticity, given the inconsistencies in this manuscript and the quotes in other Hindu, Jaina and Buddhist literature claiming to be from the Vaisheshika Sutra. In the 1950s and early 1960s, new manuscripts of Vaiśeṣika Sūtra were discovered in distant parts of India, which were later identified as this Sutra.[21][22] These newer manuscripts are quite different, more consistent with the historical literature, and suggests that, like other major texts and scriptures of Hinduism, Vaiśeṣika Sūtra too suffered interpolations, errors in transmission and distortion over time. A critical edition of the Vaiśeṣika Sūtra is now available.[21]

Date

The Vaisheshika Sutras mention the doctrines of competing schools of Indian philosophy such as Samkhya and Mimamsa,[10] but make no mention of Buddhism, which has led scholars in more recent publications to posit estimates of 6th to 2nd century BCE.[4][8][9]

The critical edition studies of Vaisheshika Sutras manuscripts discovered after 1950, suggest that the text attributed to Kanada existed in a finalized form sometime between 200 BCE and the start of the common era, with the possibility that its key doctrines are much older.[10][8] Multiple Hindu texts dated to the 1st and 2nd century CE, such as the Mahavibhasa and Jnanaprasthana from the Kushan Empire, quote and comment on Kanada's doctrines.[23] Although the Vaisheshika Sutras makes no mention of the doctrines of Jainism and Buddhism, their ancient texts mention Vaisheshika Sutras doctrines and use its terminology,[23][24] particularly Buddhism's Sarvastivada tradition, as well as the works of Nagarjuna.[25]

Philosophy

The opening sutras

Now an explanation of dharma,

the means to prosperity and salvation is dharma.

—Vaisheshika Sutra, Transl: Klaus Klostermaier[26]

The philosophy in Vaiseshika sutra is atomistic pluralism, states Jayatilleke.[27] Its ideas are known for its contributions to "inductive inference", and often coupled with the "deductive logic" of the sister school of Hinduism called the Nyaya.[28] James Thrower and others call Vaiśeṣika philosophy to be naturalism, one that rejects the supernatural.[29][30]

The text states:[31]

Several traits of substances (dravya) are given as colour, taste, smell, touch, number, size, the separate, coupling and uncoupling, priority and posterity, comprehension, pleasure and pain, attraction and revulsion, and wishes.[33] Like many foundational texts of classical schools of Hindu philosophy, God is not mentioned in the sutra, and the text is non-theistic.[34][35]

Content

Epistemology (pramana) in Vaisheshika.[36]

The critical edition of the Vaisheshika Sutras are divided into ten chapters, each subdivided into two sections called āhnikas:[37][note 1]

The Vaiśeṣika Sūtra mentions many empirical observations and natural phenomenon such as flow of fluids and motion of magnets, then attempts to explain them with naturalistic theories.[40]

Notes

  1. ↑ The later texts of the Vaisesika school expanded and revised some of these ideas, categories and theories, as did scholars of Jainism, Buddhism and other Hinduism schools.[38]

References

  1. ↑ Constance Jones; James D. Ryan (2006). Encyclopedia of Hinduism. Infobase. pp. 317–318. ISBN 978-0-8160-7564-5.
  2. ↑ Karl H. Potter (1977). Indian Metaphysics and Epistemology: The Tradition of Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika Up to Gaṅgeśa. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 211–212. ISBN 978-81-208-0309-1.
  3. ↑ Andrew Nicholson (2013), Unifying Hinduism: Philosophy and Identity in Indian Intellectual History, Columbia University Press, ISBN 978-0231149877, pages 2–5
  4. 1 2 Bart Labuschagne & Timo Slootweg 2012, p. 60, Quote: "Kanada, a Hindu sage who lived either around the 6th or 2nd century BCE, and who founded the philosophical school of Vaisheshika..
  5. ↑ Jeaneane D. Fowler 2002, pp. 98–99.
  6. ↑ Lal, Mohan. Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature: Sasay to Zorgot, Volume 5. P. 3968. ISBN 9993154229.
  7. ↑ Emmie te Nijenhuis (1977). Musicological literature. Harrassowitz. pp. 53–54. ISBN 978-3-447-01831-9.
  8. 1 2 3 Jeaneane D. Fowler 2002, pp. 98-99.
  9. 1 2 H. Margenau 2012, p. xxx-xxxi.
  10. 1 2 3 Bimal Krishna Matilal 1977, p. 54.
  11. ↑ Chandradhar Sharma (2000). A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 175. ISBN 978-81-208-0365-7.
  12. ↑ Bimal Krishna Matilal 1977, pp. 62-63.
  13. ↑ Bimal Krishna Matilal 1977, p. 63.
  14. 1 2 Bimal Krishna Matilal 1977, p. 53.
  15. ↑ Analytic Philosophy in Early Modern India J Ganeri, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2014);
    Naturalism in Classical Indian Philosophy, A Chatterjee, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2012)
  16. ↑ Jeaneane D. Fowler 2002, p. 98.
  17. ↑ Bimal Krishna Matilal 1977, pp. 56-59.
  18. ↑ Translation of critical edition of Vaiśeṣika Sūtra: John Wells (2009), The Vaisheshika Darshana, Darshana Press; Discussion: Shyam Ranganathan (2007). Ethics and the History of Indian Philosophy. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 344–348. ISBN 978-81-208-3193-3.
  19. ↑ On yoga and moksha in Vaisesika Sutras: Johannes Bronkhorst (1993). The Two Traditions of Meditation in Ancient India. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 64. ISBN 978-81-208-1114-0.
  20. 1 2 Wilhelm Halbfass (1992). On Being and What There Is: Classical Vaisesika and the History of Indian Ontology. State University of New York Press. p. 272. ISBN 978-0-7914-1178-0.
  21. 1 2 3 Bimal Krishna Matilal 1977, pp. 55-56.
  22. ↑ Wilhelm Halbfass (1992). On Being and What There Is: Classical Vaisesika and the History of Indian Ontology. State University of New York Press. pp. 79–80. ISBN 978-0-7914-1178-0.
  23. 1 2 Bimal Krishna Matilal 1977, p. 55.
  24. ↑ Johannes Bronkhorst (2006). Patrick Olivelle, ed. Between the Empires: Society in India 300 BCE to 400 CE. Oxford University Press. pp. 283–294. ISBN 978-0-19-977507-1.
  25. ↑ David Seyfort Ruegg (1981). The Literature of the Madhyamaka School of Philosophy in India. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 10, 50–51. ISBN 978-3-447-02204-0.
  26. ↑ Klaus K. Klostermaier (2010). Survey of Hinduism, A: Third Edition. State University of New York Press. p. 334. ISBN 978-0-7914-8011-3.
  27. ↑ K N Jayatilleke (2013). Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge. Routledge. p. 266. ISBN 978-1-134-54287-1.
  28. ↑ Klaus K. Klostermaier (2010). Survey of Hinduism, A: Third Edition. State University of New York Press. pp. 333–334. ISBN 978-0-7914-8011-3.
  29. ↑ James Thrower (1980). The Alternative Tradition: Religion and the Rejection of Religion in the Ancient World. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 76–90. ISBN 978-90-279-7997-1.
  30. ↑ Naturalism in Classical Indian Philosophy, Amita Chatterjee (2012), Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
  31. ↑ The Vaisheshika sutras of Kanada, 2nd Edition, Translator: Nandalal Sinha (1923); Editor: BD Basu; Note: this is the translation of non-critical edition of the manuscript
  32. ↑ O'Flaherty, p. 3.
  33. ↑ Vitsaxis, Vassilis. Thought and Faith: Comparative Philosophical and Religious Concepts in Ancient Greece, India, and Christianity. Somerset Hall Pr 2009-10-01 (October 2009). P. 299. ISBN 1935244035.
  34. ↑ Surendranath Dasgupta (1992). A History of Indian Philosophy. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 281–285. ISBN 978-81-208-0412-8.
  35. ↑ Roy W. Perrett (2013). Philosophy of Religion: Indian Philosophy. Routledge. pp. xiii–xiv. ISBN 978-1-135-70329-5.
  36. ↑ John A. Grimes, A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791430675, page 238
  37. ↑ M. Hiriyanna (1995). The Essentials of Indian Philosophy. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 85. ISBN 978-81-208-1330-4.
  38. ↑ Bimal Krishna Matilal 1977, pp. 53-54.
  39. 1 2 3 Bimal Krishna Matilal 1977, p. 56.
  40. 1 2 Bimal Krishna Matilal 1977, p. 57.
  41. 1 2 3 4 5 Bimal Krishna Matilal 1977, p. 58.
  42. ↑ The Vaisesika Sutras of Kanada, page 3, Translated by Nandalal Sinha (note this translation is of the old disputed manuscript, not critical edition)
  43. ↑ The Vaisesika Sutras of Kanada, pagez 152-166, Translated by Nandalal Sinha (note this translation is of the old disputed manuscript, not critical edition)
  44. ↑ John Wells (2009), The Vaisheshika Darshana, Darshana Press, Chapter 5 verses (main and appendix)
  45. ↑ Bimal Krishna Matilal 1977, p. 59.
  46. ↑ The Vaisesika Sutras of Kanada, pagez 296-304, Translated by Nandalal Sinha (note this translation is of the old disputed manuscript, not critical edition)
  47. ↑ John Wells (2009), The Vaisheshika Darshana, Darshana Press, pages 32-34

Bibliography

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