Media of Ukraine

The media of Ukraine refers to mass media outlets based in the Republic of Ukraine. Television, magazines, and newspapers are all operated by both state-owned and for-profit corporations which depend on advertising, subscription, and other sales-related revenues. The Constitution of Ukraine guarantees freedom of speech. As a country in transition, Ukraine's media system is under transformation.


Legislative framework

The Ukrainian legal framework on media freedom is deemed "among the most progressive in eastern Europe", although implementation has been uneven.[1] The constitution and laws provide for freedom of speech and press. However, the government does not always respect these rights in practice.[2]

The 1996 Constitution of Ukraine and a 1991 law provide for freedom of speech and free development of media in Ukraine.[3]

The Constitution of Ukraine lists the Ukrainian language as the official one, and the law compels media outlets to use it. Nevertheless, most media publications in Ukraine are in Russian language. Electronic media, which are government-licensed, are mostly in Ukrainian, while print newspapers, which only require a formal registration, are published in Russian.[4] Online media in Ukraine is not regulated.[4]

The main pieces of Ukrainian Media Legislation are:[4]

In 2001 Ukraine decriminalised libel, which is considered a civil offence, and the law limits the amount of damages that may be claimed in libel lawsuits. Since 2009, judges have been required to follow ECHR standards on civil libel standards, distinguishing between facts and value judgement, and affording lower levels of protection to public officials. Yet, the use of libel lawsuits by politicians and officials to deter critical reporting has continued.[1] The press can publish critical materials and opinions without penalty, and public officials enjoy fewer legal protections from criticism than other citizens. However, local media observers express concern over high monetary damages that at times were demanded and awarded for alleged libel.[2]

The constitution prohibits arbitrary interference with privacy, family, home, or correspondence, however in the past authorities have been reported as only selectively respecting these prohibitions.[2][nb 1]

The Law on Protection of Public Morals of 20 November 2003, prohibits the production and circulation of pornography; dissemination of products that propagandise war or spread national and religious intolerance; humiliation or insult to an individual or nation on the grounds of nationality, religion, or ignorance; and the propagation of "drug addition, toxicology, alcoholism, smoking and other bad habits."[5]

Draconian laws were passed in mid January 2014 during the Euromaidan demonstrations by the Yanukovych administration that seriously restricted freedom of expression and freedom of the media. They were repealed on 28 January 2014.[1]

In early March 2014, Crimea removed Ukraine-based TV channels ahead of its Russian annexation referendum.[6] Later that month, the Ukrainian National Council for TV and Radio Broadcasting ordered measures against some Russian TV channels which were accused of broadcasting misleading information about Ukraine.[7][8]

In February 2015, the law "On protection information television and radio space of Ukraine," banned the showing (on Ukrainian television and in cinemas[9]) of "audiovisual works" that contain "popularization, propaganda, propaganda, any action of law enforcement agencies, armed forces, other military, military or security forces of an invader" was enacted.[10] One year later Russian productions (on Ukrainian television) had decreased by 3 to 4 (times).[10] 15 more Russian TV channels were banned in March 2016.[11]

In March 2015, the Ukrainian Parliament adopted a law on access to information, incorporating the international standards and introducing sanctions and fines for obstructive public officials. Its implementation is still to be evaluated.[1]

Regulatory authorities

The main regulatory authority for the broadcast media is the National Television and Radio Broadcasting Council of Ukraine (NTRBCU), tasked with licensing media operators and ensure their compliance with the law. Its members are appointed by the President and the Parliament - thought the appointment process has been criticised as politicised. 75 percent of broadcasts should be in the Ukrainian language, in order for a broadcast media to obtain a license - although this has given rise to protests by broadcasters who buy most of their programming from Russia and the combined CIS area. The regulation is often complied with only formally, by adding Ukrainian subtitles to Russian-language kids programmes or cartoons. The Council has often been in conflict with Russia-based TV channels broadcasting cross-border in Ukraine, as they are deemed in breach of Ukrainian legislation on language, advertisement, and erotic and violent contents.[4] Following the Euromaidan, the new ruling coalition declared no confidence in the leadership of the broadcasting regulator, seen as politicised. New members of the Council were appointed in July 2014 in a more independent fashion.[1]

The State Committee of Ukraine supervises state-owned TV and radio outlets. The Parliament Committee is tasked with legislation on freedom of speech and information.[4]

The National Expert Commission of Ukraine on the Protection of Public Morality, established by the government in 2004, was an advising body to examine the media and detect sexual and violent contents. It was disbanded in 2015.[12] The Commission had been accused of limiting media freedom and of trying to control "morals" in the online blogosphere.[4]

Media outlets

Most Ukrainian media outlets have private owners. Until 2014 the state still controlled a TV channel (First National) and a radio station (National Radio Company of Ukraine), with only marginal market shares, and there was no public service broadcaster. Local governments also own local TV and radio stations.[13] By the end of 2014, Ukraine hosted 1,563 broadcast licenses, of which 1,229 were held by private stations, 298 by communally-owned stations, and 36 by state broadcasters.[1]

In Ukraine many news outlets are financed by wealthy investors and reflected the political and economic interests of their owners.[14][15] The decline in advertising revenues has left media outlets even more dependent on support from politicised owners, hence hindering their editorial independence. Paid content disguised as news (known as jeansa) remains widespread in the Ukrainian media, weakening theirs' and journalists' credibility, especially during electoral campaigns.[1] According to an April 2014 poll by Razumkov Centre, the Ukrainian media was trusted by 61.5 percent of respondents (Western media 40.4 percent, and Russia 12.7 percent).[16]

Media ownership remains opaque, despite a February 2014 bill requiring full disclosure of ownership structures.[1]

Over 30,000 periodicals are officially registered in Ukraine, though most of these are inactive or have never published. In 2009, there were around 4,000 periodicals — 2,400 newspapers and 1,700 magazines.[17]

Three quarters of the print market is controlled by six publishing houses. Two of them are foreign owned: Burda-Ukraine (of the German holding Hubert Burda Media, and Edipress-Ukraine of the Swiss company Edipresse. Four are owned by Ukrainians, including Segodnya-multimedia by the System Capital Management holding of billionaire Rinat Akhmetov, and Fakty i Commentarii by billionaire Viktor Pinchuk (former President’s Kuchma son-in-law).[17]

Kiev dominates the media sector in Ukraine: the Kyiv Post is Ukraine's leading English-language newspaper. National newspapers Den and Zerkalo Nedeli, tabloids, such as The Ukrainian Week or Focus (Russian), and television and radio are largely based there, although Lviv is also a significant national media centre. The National News Agency of Ukraine, Ukrinform was founded here in 1918. Sanoma publishing Ukrainian editions of such magazines as Esquire, Harpers Bazaar and National Geographic Magazine. BBC Ukrainian started its broadcasts in 1992. Ukrayinska Pravda[18] founded by Georgiy Gongadze in April 2000 (the day of the Ukrainian constitutional referendum). Published mainly in Ukrainian with selected articles published in or translated to Russian and English, the newspaper has particular emphasis on the politics of Ukraine.

The most circulated publications are leisure and infotainment magazines. Newspapers, magazines and general audience mass media are usually owned by groups affiliated with political-economic conglomerates (oligarchs), with serious repercussions on the independence and impartiality of the press.[17]

Radio broadcasting

The first official radio broadcast took place in Kiev on 1 February 1939. Ukrainians listen to radio programming, such as Radio Ukraine or Radio Liberty, largely commercial, on average just over two-and-a-half hours a day.

Most Ukrainian radio stations are part of larger media holdings. Each big city has a couple of competing big stations. The main ones include:[19]

Most radio stations have a generalist profile and broadcast mainly music and entertainment, with weak news contents, as they rely on advertisement revenues for sustenance. Era FM is the only talk radio station broadcasting (as of 2010).[19]

Television broadcasting

Television in Ukraine was introduced in 1951, and remains the favourite medium of Ukrainians. The main TV channels are part of big financial holdings (except for 1+1, controlled by Cyprus Holding Limited). Foreign investments in broadcast media cannot go beyond 20% of shares - although Russia-based groups circumvent this limit through fake local enterprises. Editorial policies strictly follow owners' economic and financial interests.[20]

Ukraine has up to 10 main TV channels, with a fragmentation that preserves media pluralism although channels are biased in different ways and directions. Viewers choose a favourite bias or consume multiple channels.[20] The most watched television channels in Ukraine are the commercial ones Inter and 1+1. Network covers 99.7 percent of Ukraine's territory (according to the channel's own information). Inter is among the top-rated networks in Ukraine, competing with such as 1+1 media, StarLightMedia Group, which operates six TV channels, 5 Kanal and TVi. 5 Kanal, controlled by Ukrainian President Petro Poroshenko, is the most popular news channel in Ukraine.[21]

Ukraine's only digital terrestrial TV company Zeonbud was declared a monopoly in December 2014. It had been afforded an exclusive license in a non-transparent way in late 2010. As such, it is subject to reinforced governmental oversight.[1]

The most-viewed channels (audience share age 4 and older, December 2015) were the following:[23]

Position Channel Group Share of total viewing (%)
1 Inter Inter Media Group 13.07%
2 1+1 1+1 Media 11.63%
3 Channel Ukraine Media Group Ukraine 9.20%
4 STB StarLightMedia 8.75%
5 ICTV StarLightMedia 6.45%
6 New channel StarLightMedia 5.35%
7 NTN Inter Media Group 4.03%
8 TET 1+1 Media 3.46%
9 2+2 1+1 Media 2.29%
10 PLUSPLUS 1+1 Media 2.07%

Cinema

Ukraine has had an influence on the history of the cinema. Ukrainian directors Alexander Dovzhenko, often cited as one of the most important early Soviet film makers, as well as being a pioneer of Soviet montage theory, Dovzhenko Film Studios, and Sergei Parajanov, Armenian film director and artist who made significant contributions to Ukrainian, Armenian and Georgian cinema. He invented his own cinematic style, Ukrainian poetic cinema, which was totally out of step with the guiding principles of socialist realism.

Kira Muratova

Other important directors including Kira Muratova, Larisa Shepitko, Sergei Bondarchuk, Leonid Bykov, Yuri Ilyenko, Leonid Osyka, Ihor Podolchak with his Delirium and Maryna Vroda. Many Ukrainian actors have achieved international fame and critical success, including: Vera Kholodnaya, Bohdan Stupka, Milla Jovovich, Olga Kurylenko, and Mila Kunis.

Despite a history of important and successful productions, the industry has often been characterised by a debate about its identity and the level of Russian and European influence. Ukrainian producers are active in international co-productions and Ukrainian actors, directors and crew feature regularly in Russian (Soviet in past) films. Also successful films had been based on Ukrainian people, stories or events, including Battleship Potemkin, Man with a Movie Camera, and Everything Is Illuminated.

Ukrainian State Film Agency owns National Oleksandr Dovzhenko Film Centre, film copying laboratory and archive, takes part in hosting of the Odessa International Film Festival, and Molodist is the only one FIAPF accredited International Film Festival held in Ukraine; competition program is devoted to student, first short and first full feature films from all over the world. Held annually in October.

In 2009, there were 148 cinemas (273 halls) in Ukraine, with an annual turnover close to $65m dollars. On average, a Ukrainian person goes to the cinema 1.3 times per year. Cinemas income come mainly from ticket sales (55%), snacks and drinks (30%) and advertising (30%). Most cinema theatres screen blockbuster movies.[24]

In 2009 screening movies in Russian language was forbidden by the government, angering cinema owners (as dubbing made movies more expensive and delayed projections) and Russian-speaking viewers.[24]

Telecommunications

Telecommunication is the most modern, diverse and fast-growing sector in the economy of Ukraine. Unlike country's dominating export industries, the telecommunications, as well as the related Internet sector, remain largely unaffected by the global economic crisis, ranking high in European and global rankings.

The industry also leads in de-monopolization of Ukraine's economy as Ukrtelekom (once the country's sole telephone provider) was successfully privatized, and is now losing its retail market share to independent, foreign-invested private providers.

The entire population of Ukraine now has telephone and/or mobile phone connection;[25] Internet access is universally available in cities and main transport corridors, expanding into smaller settlements. The mobile cellular telephone system's expansion has slowed, largely due to the saturation of the market, which has reached 125 mobile phones per 100 people.[13]

Ukraine's telecommunication development plan emphasizes further improving domestic trunk lines, international connections, and the mobile cellular system.

The Ukrainian mobile system is shared between Kyivstar — 22.17m subscribers (40.1 percent); MTS-Ukraine — 17.7 m subscribers (32.1 percent); Astelit - TM life:) — 11.86m subscribers (21.5 percent); Ukrainian Telesystems and Golden Telecom (TM Beeline) — 2.1m subscribers (3.8 percent); and Telesystems of Ukraine (TM PEOPLEnet) which is the leader among CDMA-operators (383,000 subscribers — 0.7 percent).[13]

Internet

Internet in Ukraine is well developed and steadily growing, mostly uninfluenced by the global financial crisis; in April 2012 rapid growth was forecast for at least two more years.[26] As of 2011, Ukraine was ranked 9th in the "Top 10 Internet countries in Europe", with then 33.9% Internet penetration and 15.3 million users; growing to 36.8% in 2012.[27] Internet penetration reached 43% in 2014.[1]

In 2011, online retailing turnover in Ukraine exceeded USD 2 bn. For 2012, it was expected to reach USD 4 bn. Online payments in the country in 2011 where estimated at USD 400 million, 200% growth compared to 2010.[28]

As of 2011, Ukraine ranked 8th among the world's countries with the fastest Internet access speed, with an average download speed of 1,190 kbit/s.[29]

According to Freedom House, the Internet in Ukraine is "Free", in contrast to Ukraine's news media as a whole which is considered to be only "Partly Free".[30]

Aside from web portals and search engines, the most popular websites are Vk, YouTube, Wikipedia, Facebook, Livejournal, EX.UA and Odnoklassniki.[18]

In May 2017, president Poroshenko signed a decree blocking access in Ukraine to Russian servers VKontakte, Odnoklassniki, Yandex and Mail.ru, claiming they participate in an information war against Ukraine. Respondents in an online poll on the UNIAN site declared that 66% were “categorically against” the ban of Russian sites and another 11% said it would be easier to “ban the whole internet, like in North Korea”.[31]

Media Organisations

The Media Law Institute (MLI) operates since 2005 with the support of USAID-funded NGO Internews Network and its Strengthening Independent Media in Ukraine Program. The MLI supports media legislation development, freedom of speech, and access to information in Ukraine; monitors media regulation drafted in Ukrainian parliament, develops new media and information law curricula for law and journalism schools, and cooperates with Ukrainian and international organisations to protect freedom of speech and journalists' rights.[4]

The Institute of Mass Information (IMI), established in 1995 by Ukrainian journalists, defends freedom of speech, organises trainings for Ukrainian journalists, and monitors journalists' rights and attempts or pressure inflicted upon them, including trials involving mass media and authorities. Since 2001 the IMI is a partner of the international watchdog organisation Reporters Without Borders.[4]

The Media Reform Centre was founded in 2002 at the School of Journalism at Kyiv-Mohyla Academy. It organises events, conferences and trainings to initiate open discussion concerning media, striving for more transparent media and government.[4]

Telekritika is a magazine and an online platform for media professionals to discuss ethical, legal and other professional issues.[4]

Internews-Ukraine, founded in 1996, sees its mission in the establishment European values through development of successful media in Ukraine - particularly the online media. It organises trainings for journalists, public events and projects to improve news quality, surveys, studies and monitoring.[4]

News agencies

The largest news agencies in Ukraine are:[32]

Trade unions

Several trade union of the media sector exist in Ukraine, but their activities are limited.[33]

Organisations based on corporate membership represent the interests of media owners and receive their financial support. They include:[33]

Censorship and media freedom

Freedom House reported the status of press freedom in Ukraine in 2015 as improving from Not Free to Partly Free. It justified the change as follows:[1]

due to profound changes in the media environment after the fall of President Viktor Yanukovych's government in February, despite a rise in attacks on journalists during the Euromaidan protests of early 2014 and the subsequent conflict in eastern Ukraine. The level of government hostility and legal pressure faced by journalists decreased, as did political pressure on state-owned outlets. The media also benefited from improvements to the law on access to information and the increased independence of the broadcasting regulator.

In 2015 the main concerns about media freedom in Ukraine were the handling of pro-Russian propaganda, the concentration of media ownership, and the high risks of violence against journalists, especially in the conflict areas in the east.[1]

As of September 2015, Freedom House classifies the Internet in Ukraine as "partly free" and the press as "partly free".[30] Press freedom had significantly improved since the Orange Revolution of 2004.[34][35][14] However, in 2010 Freedom House perceived "negative trends in Ukraine".[36]

The Ukrainian legal framework on media freedom is deemed "among the most progressive in eastern Europe", although implementation has been uneven.[1] The Constitution of Ukraine and a 1991 law provide for freedom of speech.[3]

Media ownership

Transparency

In October 2016 amendments to media legislation came into force giving broadcasters and program service providers six months time "to disclose detailed information about their ownership structures, including the identities of ultimate beneficiaries". In practice, media ownership in Ukraine has long been non-transparent.[37]

Concentration and pluralism

The Public Television and Radio Broadcasting Act was adopted in April 2014 and came into effect in May 2014, providing for the creation of the National Public Broadcasting Company of Ukraine.[38]

In October 2016, "quota for radio - to broadcast Ukrainian songs and programs maintenance in Ukrainian" were introduced.[39] The media market is also subject to competition law, but in practice media monopolies are not regulated and media laws are enforced selectively.[40] The law caps foreign ownership of Ukrainian media outlets at 30 percent.[41]

Current situation

In Ukraine concentration of market ownership is not conditioned just by commercial interests, but also, and more importantly, by political interests and lobbies.[40] According to Ambeyi Ligabo (UN Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression from 2002 to 2008) these are amongst the most notable deficiencies in the Ukraine media environment.[42]

State-owned media

While there is no broadcasting that has public service as a mission, decades after the independence from the Soviet Union state-owned media outlets continue to exist.

In 2006 half of more newspapers and magazine in Ukraine belonged to the state. In 2011 there were more than 100 newspapers owned by the state and more than 800 owned by municipalities, together constituting nearly 22 percent of all Ukrainian periodicals. In 2006 the state owned 35 television stations, including UT-1, and 3 radio channels. As of 2011 the "national state owns about 4 percent of the TV and radio sector, on top of the nearly 815 municipal television and radio companies controlled by local governments".[40]

Also, state-owned Ukrposhta has a monopoly on press delivery in some regions and raises barriers to the development of private publishers, because of inefficiency and constant increase of prices.[40]

The Public Television and Radio Broadcasting Act was passed in April 2014, but the reorganization process took long.[38] The National Public Broadcasting Company of Ukraine was created in 2015.

Advertising

Only around 7 percent of advertising money goes to newspapers. 45 percent goes to broadcast media. Still, even if this is the largest share, regional TV channels receives a little part of this, with most money going to national ones. But since there are fifteen nationwide TV channels, the slices are still small. State-owned media offers lower rates than private one, because they do not need advertising money for their survival.

Also because of all those reasons Ukrainian media depend much on political advertising, with obvious consequence on its bias. In 2009 direct political advertising for the presidential election accounted for as much as 23.5% of all television advertising income, but presidential candidates also use hidden advertising widely so real percentage is higher, yet unknown.[40]

Foreign investments

Foreign investments in the Ukrainian media market are currently low. In the late 1990s and early 2000s Western companies made investments in the country television, but later the sold the shares to locals -mainly oligarchs- leaving the market. Problems are "the lack of stable, transparent business regulation, the widespread corruption, and the uneasy relationships between the media and politicians". Russia marks an exception: Russian newspapers, TV channel and radio stations are popular in Ukraine. Russian programs are also popular in Ukrainian media outlets, and they are cheaper than Ukrainian ones.[40]

Oligarchs

It is widely understood that most of the media sector is controlled by oligarchs, or – in this case – "media barons",[43] a small number of wealthy businessmen with interests also in other industries and in politics.[37] They are "external owners", entrepreneurs for which media outlets are not the main business and are not an important source of capital. For them TV is used to accumulate political influence, that can be used to support their true main businesses. As media owner they are not primarily driven by market logic.[40][44]

This high degree of ownership concentration means high barrier to entry to the media market.[41] Currently, four financial-political groups control nearly the entire broadcasting sector of the Ukrainian media:[40][44]

Person Group Media outlets
Viktor and Olena Pinchuk StarLightMedia[45] ICTV, M1, Novyi Kanal, STB, Fakty i Kommentarii, Ekonomika, etc.
Ihor Kolomoyskyi 1+1 Media Group[46] 1+1, TET (co-owner Ihor Surkis), Kino TV, UNIAN, Glavred
Dmytro Firtash (formerly Valeriy Khoroshkovskyi) Inter Media[47] Inter, Inter+, Enter, Enter-Film, K1, K2, Megasport, MTV Ukraine (closed in 2013), the web-site Podrobnosti and Ukrajinsky novyny[48]
Rinat Akhmetov Media Group Ukraine/System Capital Management[49][48] Ukraine, Segodnya, Salon Dona i Basa

See also

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 Freedom House, Ukraine 2015 Freedom of the Press report
  2. 1 2 3 "Ukraine", Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2012, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor, U.S. Department of State, 15 April 2013. Retrieved 5 February 2014.
  3. 1 2 1999 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Ukraine, US Department of State (February 23, 2000)
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Oleh Rozvadovskyy, Ukraine #National Media Policies, EJC Media Landscapes, circa 2010
  5. ↑ "ONI Country Profile: Ukraine", OpenNet Initiative, 21 December 2010
  6. ↑ "Crimeans urged to vote against "neo-Nazis" in Kiev". BBC News. 13 March 2014. Retrieved 14 October 2016.
  7. ↑ Ennis, Stephen (12 March 2014). "Ukraine hits back at Russian TV onslaught". BBC News. Retrieved 14 October 2016.
  8. ↑ Barry, Ellen; Somaiya, Ravi (5 March 2014). "For Russian TV Channels, Influence and Criticism". The New York Times. Retrieved 14 October 2016.
  9. ↑ (in Ukrainian) State Committee for Cinematography banned the movie from Warner Bros Tilem Schweiger for promoting the FSB, Ukrayinska Pravda (12 November 2016)
  10. 1 2 За рік показ російського медіа-продукту впав у 3-4 рази, – Нацрада [Over the course of a year, the showing of Russian media products fell to 3-4 times - National Council] (in Ukrainian). Den. 5 February 2016. Archived from the original on 18 October 2016.
  11. ↑ TV broadcasting council removes 15 more Russian TV channels from adaptation list Interfax-Ukraine (12 February 2016)
  12. ↑ Рада ліквідувала Національну комісію з питань моралі [Parliament liquidated the National Commission on the Question of Morality] (in Ukrainian). radiosvoboda.org. 10 February 2015. Retrieved 13 October 2016.
  13. 1 2 3 Rozvadovskyy, Oleh (2010). "Media Landscapes: Ukraine". European Journalism Centre. Retrieved 14 October 2016.
  14. 1 2 "Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Ukraine". US Department of State, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor. 6 March 2007. Retrieved 26 March 2017.
  15. ↑ Zhuk, Alyona (24 September 2015). "Experts: Media owners overtake government as top threat to free speech". Kyiv Post. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015.
  16. ↑ Українці вірять церкві, армії і українським ЗМІ [Ukrainians believe the church, the army, and the Ukrainian media] (in Ukrainian). Ukrayinska Pravda. 19 May 2014. Retrieved 26 March 2016.
  17. 1 2 3 Oleh Rozvadovskyy, Ukraine #Print Media, EJC Media Landscapes, circa 2010
  18. 1 2 "Top Sites in Ukraine". Alexa. Retrieved 12 May 2014.
  19. 1 2 Rozvadovskyy, Oleh (2010). "Media Landscapes: Ukraine: Radio". European Journalism Centre. Retrieved 14 October 2016.
  20. 1 2 Rozvadovskyy, Oleh (2010). "Media Landscapes: Ukraine: Television". European Journalism Centre. Retrieved 14 October 2016.
  21. ↑ "Profile: Ukraine's President Petro Poroshenko". BBC News. 28 May 2014.
  22. ↑ Yuliana Romanyshyn (27 December 2016). "English-language news source Ukraine Today shuts down (UPDATED)". Kyiv Post. Retrieved 1 January 2017.
  23. ↑ "Top-channels ТВ". ТВ панель Україна. Retrieved 12 March 2015.
  24. 1 2 Rozvadovskyy, Oleh (2010). "Media Landscapes: Ukraine: Cinema". European Journalism Centre. Retrieved 14 October 2016.
  25. ↑ ,except for a few very remote and sparsely inhabited settlements
  26. ↑ Ukraine's Internet growth rates will stabilize in 2 or 3 years (in Ukrainian)
  27. ↑ Yarovaia, Mayia (12 February 2013). Госстат считает, что в Украине 5 млн интернет-пользователей [Gosstat estimates that there are 5 million internet users in Ukraine] (in Russian). AIN. Retrieved 26 March 2017.
  28. ↑ http://comments.ua/ht/337655-oborot-torgovli-uanete-2012.html Оборот украинских интернет-магазинов в прошлом году составил более $2 млрд] (in Ukrainian)
  29. ↑ Zitron, Ed (22 September 2011). "Pando Networks Releases Global Internet Speed Study". pandonetworks.com. Archived from the original on 3 December 2012.
  30. 1 2 "Ukraine". freedomhouse.org. Retrieved 28 September 2015.
  31. ↑ Luhn, Alec (16 May 2017). "Ukraine blocks popular social networks as part of sanctions on Russia". The Guardian. Retrieved 17 May 2017.
  32. ↑ Oleh Rozvadovskyy, Ukraine #News Agencies, EJC Media Landscapes, circa 2010
  33. 1 2 Oleh Rozvadovskyy, Ukraine #Trade Unions, EJC Media Landscapes, circa 2010
  34. ↑ CIS: Press Freedom In Former Soviet Union Under Assault, Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty (April 28, 2006 )
  35. ↑ Karlekar, Karin Deutsch (2007). "Press Freedom in 2006: Growing Threats to Media Independence". In Karin Deutsch Karlekar; Eleanor Marchant. Freedom of the Press 2007: A Global Survey of Media Independence. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 11–12. ISBN 978-0-7425-5582-2. Retrieved 27 March 2017.
  36. 1 2 "Ukraine - Country report - Freedom of the Press". Freedom House. 2016. Retrieved 4 March 2017.
  37. 1 2 Eastern Partnership Media Freedom Landscape 2014 (PDF). Kyiv: EaP Media Freedom Watch. 2015. p. 85. ISBN 978-617-7157-12-9. Retrieved 19 March 2017.
  38. ↑ "Amenabilities for false information on the ownership structure". Institute Mass Information. 31 January 2017. Retrieved 4 March 2017.
  39. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Ryabinska, Natalya (2011). "The Media Market and Media Ownership in Post-Communist Ukraine: Impact on Media Independence and Pluralism"Free registration required (PDF). Problems of Post-Communism. 58 (6): 3–20. ISSN 1075-8216. doi:10.2753/PPC1075-8216580601. Archived (PDF) from the original on 26 March 2017. Retrieved 26 March 2017.
  40. 1 2 de Jong, Sijbren; Oosterveld, Willem Th.; Usanov, Artur; Kertysova, Katarina; Ilko, Ihor; Fernández-Garayzábal González, Juncal (2015). Beyond the Cold War of Words: How Online Media can make a Difference in the Post-Soviet Space (PDF). The Hague Centre for Strategic Studies. pp. 55–56. ISBN 978-94-92102-15-7. Retrieved 7 March 2017.
  41. ↑ Ligabo, Ambeyi (28 February 2008). A/HRC/7/14/Add.2: Report of the Special Rapporteur on the right to freedom of opinion and expression, Ambeyi Ligabo: addendum: mission to Ukraine (PDF) (Report). UN Human Rights Council. p. 2. Retrieved 26 March 2017.
  42. ↑ Kuś, Michał; Russ-Mohl, Stephan; Szynol, Adam (13 August 2013). "The New Barons. Power, Politics, and Media". ejo.ch. Retrieved 13 March 2017.
  43. 1 2 "Media Ownership Monitor: Ukrainian media prone to power plays more than ever". Reporters Without Borders. 11 October 2016. Retrieved 7 March 2017.
  44. ↑ "StartLight Media Ltd". Media Ownership Monitor. Institute of Mass Information (IMI) and Reporters Without Borders. Retrieved 13 March 2017.
  45. ↑ "1+1 Media". Media Ownership Monitor. Institute of Mass Information (IMI) and Reporters Without Borders. Retrieved 13 March 2017.
  46. ↑ "Inter Media Group". Media Ownership Monitor. Institute of Mass Information (IMI) and Reporters Without Borders. Retrieved 13 March 2017.
  47. 1 2 Ivanov, Valery; Kotyuzhynska, Tatiana; Yermolenko, Volodymyr; Chomenok, Oleg; Moroz, Vitaliy; Voloshenuk, Oksana; Kulakov, Andriy (2011). "Ukrainian Media Landscape - 2010" (PDF). Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung. Retrieved 26 March 2017.
  48. ↑ "Media Group Ukraine". Media Ownership Monitor. Institute of Mass Information (IMI) and Reporters Without Borders. Retrieved 26 March 2017.
  1. ↑ Cases were Ukrainian authorities were accused of violation of privacy are:
    • On 17 August 2012, opposition politician Oleksandr Turchynov alleged that law enforcement officials monitored and tracked opposition activists without legal permission.
    • On 20 August 2012, Serhiy Vlasenko, a lawyer for former prime minister Yulia Tymoshenko, alleged that authorities had him under surveillance, tapped his telephones, and watched his e-mail account.
    • While, by law the Security Service of Ukraine (SBU) may not conduct surveillance or searches without a court-issued warrant, citizens have the legal right to examine any dossier concerning them in the possession of the SBU and to recover losses resulting from an investigation, authorities generally do not respect these rights because implementing legislation has not been enacted, and many citizens are not aware of their rights or that authorities have violated their privacy.
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