Isotopes of thorium

Although thorium (₉₀Th) has 6 naturally occurring isotopes, none of these isotopes are stable; however, one isotope, ²³²Th, is relatively stable, with a half-life of 14.05 billion years, considerably longer than the age of the earth, and even slightly longer than the generally accepted age of the universe. This isotope makes up nearly all natural thorium. As such, thorium is considered to be mononuclidic. It has a characteristic terrestrial isotopic composition and thus an atomic mass can be given.

Thirty radioisotopes have been characterized, with the most stable (after ²³²Th) being ²³⁰Th with a half-life of 75,380 years, ²²⁹Th with a half-life of 7,340 years, and ²²⁸Th with a half-life of 1.92 years. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are less than thirty days and the majority of these have half-lives that are less than ten minutes. One isotope, ²²⁹Th, has a nuclear isomer (or metastable state) with a remarkably low excitation energy,^[2] recently measured to be 7.6 ± 0.5 eV.^[3]

The known isotopes of thorium range in mass number from 209^[4] to 238.

Actinides vs fission products

Notable isotopes

Thorium-228

²²⁸Th is an isotope of thorium with 138 neutrons. It was once named Radiothorium, due to its occurrence in the disintegration chain of thorium-232. It has a half-life of 1.9116 years. It undergoes alpha decay to ²²⁴Ra. Occasionally it decays by the unusual route of cluster decay, emitting a nucleus of ²⁰O and producing stable ²⁰⁸Pb. It is a daughter isotope of ²³²U.

Th-228 has an atomic weight of 228.0287411 grams/mole. Uranium-232 decays to this nuclide by alpha emission.

Thorium-229

²²⁹Th is a radioactive isotope of thorium that decays by alpha emission with a half-life of 7340 years. ²²⁹Th is produced by the decay of uranium-233, and its principal use is for the production of the medical isotopes actinium-225 and bismuth-213.^[10]

Thorium-229m

Gamma ray spectroscopy has indicated that ²²⁹Th has a nuclear isomer ^229mTh with a remarkably low excitation energy. This would make it the lowest-energy nuclear isomer known, and it might be possible to excite this nuclear state using lasers with wavelengths in the UV-C range. The isomer might have application for high density energy storage,^[11] an accurate clock,^[12][13] as a qubit for quantum computing, or to test the effect of the chemical environment on nuclear decay rates.^[14]

The isomer transition energy of ²²⁹Th is currently derived from indirect measurements of the gamma-ray spectrum resulting from the decay of ²³³U. In 1989–1993 first measurements were performed using high-quality germanium detectors, resulting in an estimate of E = 3.5±1.0 eV for the ²²⁹Th isomer transition energy.^[15][16] This unnaturally low value triggered a multitude of investigations, both theoretical and experimental, trying to determine the transition energy precisely and to specify other properties of the isomer state of ²²⁹Th (such as the lifetime and the magnetic moment). However, searches for direct photon emission from the low-lying excited state have failed to report an unambiguous signal. New indirect measurements with an advanced high-resolution x-ray microcalorimeter were carried out in 2007^[3] yielding a new value for the transition energy of E = 7.6±0.5 eV, corrected to E = 7.8±0.5 eV in 2009.^[17] This value is currently the most accepted one in the community but cannot be considered definite until a direct measurement is made successfully. The shift into the UV-C domain probably explains why previous attempts to directly observe the transition were unsuccessful.

The lifetime of the isomer has been measured to be 6±1 hours. The measurement was done by collecting recoiled ^229mTh atoms in a MgF₂ crystal and measuring the light emission variation over time. The measurement is close to the previously predicted lifetime of 5 hrs derived from a transition energy 7.6 eV or 7.8 eV^[18][3][17], in a way validating these transition energies. However a different estimate for the lifetime at these transition energies is between 0.46 10⁶ s/7.8³ = 0.27 hr and 1.79 10⁶ s/7.8³ = 1.0 hr.^[19] Moreover, the validity of the lifetime measurement has been questioned.^[20] Neutral(1+,2+) atoms are expected have a sub-millisecond lifetime due to "Internal Conversion" if the transition energy exceeds the ionisation energy of 6.3 eV (11.5 eV, 18.3 eV).^[21] If this isomer were to decay it would produce a gamma ray (defined by its origin, not its wavelength) in the ultraviolet range.

In 2016, the transition was directly detected by neutralization on an MCP plate.^[21][22] However the transition energy in the ²²⁹Th²⁺ nuclei was only weakly constrained by the first and third ionization energies of Thorium, to between 6.3 and 18.3 eV (200–70 nm), because the experiment was optimized for detection rather than precision measurement.^[23] Note that it appears conceivable that the ionization energy of neutralized Thorium on an MCP plate gets shifted with respect to a free atom, given that the binding energy of such heavy atoms is substantial and the work function of the used thorium (3.4 eV) and the CsI MCP surface (3.4 eV) deviates significantly from the ionisation energy of 6.3 eV, resulting in a minimum transition energy of only 3.4 eV - 6.25 eV^[24][25]

Thorium-230

²³⁰Th is a radioactive isotope of thorium that can be used to date corals and determine ocean current flux. Ionium was a name given early in the study of radioactive elements to the ²³⁰Th isotope produced in the decay chain of ²³⁸U before it was realized that ionium and thorium are chemically identical. The symbol Io was used for this supposed element. (The name is still used in ionium-thorium dating.)

Thorium-231

²³¹Th has 141 neutrons. It is the decay product of uranium-235. It is found in very small amounts on the earth and has a half-life of 25.5 hours. When it decays it emits a beta ray and forms protactinium-231. It has a decay energy of 0.39 MeV. It has a mass of 231.0363043 grams/mole.

Thorium-232

²³²Th is the only primordial nuclide of thorium and makes up effectively all of natural thorium, with other isotopes of thorium appearing only in trace amounts as relatively short-lived decay products of uranium and thorium.^[26]. The isotope decays by alpha decay with a half-life of 1.405×10¹⁰ years, over three times the age of the earth and more than the age of the universe. Its decay chain is the thorium series eventually ending in lead-208. The remainder of the chain is quick; the longest half-lives in it are 5.75 years for radium-228 and 1.91 years for thorium-228, with all other half-lives totaling less than 5 days.^[27].

²³²Th is a fertile material able to absorb a neutron and undergo transmutation into the fissile nuclide uranium-233, which is the basis of the thorium fuel cycle.^[28] In the form of Thorotrast, a thorium dioxide suspension, it was used as contrast medium in early X-ray diagnostics. Thorium-232 is now classified as carcinogenic.^[29]

Thorium-233

²³³Th is an isotope of thorium that decays into protactinium-233 through beta decay. It has a half-life of 21.83 minutes.^[30]

Thorium-234

²³⁴Th is an isotope of thorium whose nuclei contain 144 neutrons. Th-234 has a half-life of 24.1 days, and when it decays, it emits a beta particle, and in so doing, it transmutes into protactinium-234. Th-234 has a mass of 234.0436 atomic mass units (amu), and it has a decay energy of about 270 keV (kiloelectronvolts). Uranium-238 usually decays into this isotope of thorium. (It can undergo spontaneous fission.)

List of isotopes

1. ↑ Bold for nuclides with half-lives longer than the age of the universe (nearly stable)
2. ↑ Abbreviations:
   CD: Cluster decay
   EC: Electron capture
   IT: Isomeric transition
   SF: Spontaneous fission
3. ↑ Bold for stable isotopes
4. 1 2 Intermediate decay product of ²³⁵U
5. ↑ Intermediate decay product of ²³²Th
6. ↑ Used in Uranium-thorium dating
7. 1 2 Intermediate decay product of ²³⁸U
8. ↑ Primordial radionuclide

Notes

• Geologically exceptional samples are known in which the isotopic composition lies outside the reported range. The uncertainty in the atomic mass may exceed the stated value for such specimens.
• Values marked # are not purely derived from experimental data, but at least partly from systematic trends. Spins with weak assignment arguments are enclosed in parentheses.
• Uncertainties are given in concise form in parentheses after the corresponding last digits. Uncertainty values denote one standard deviation, except isotopic composition and standard atomic mass from IUPAC, which use expanded uncertainties.

Uses

Thorium has been suggested for use in Thorium-based nuclear power.

Its radioactivity is a consideration for its non-nuclear uses but is too small to rule it out.

It is currently used in cathodes of vacuum tubes, for a combination of physical stability at high temperature and a low work energy required to remove an electron from its surface.

It has, for about a century, been used in mantles of gas and vapor lamps such as gas lights and camping lanterns.

Low dispersion lenses

Thorium was also used in certain glass elements of Aero-Ektar lenses made by Kodak during World War II. Thus they are mildly radioactive.^[32] Two of the glass elements in the f/2.5 Aero-Ektar lenses are 11 and 13% thorium by weight. The Thorium-containing glasses were used because they have a high refractive index with a low dispersion (variation of index with wavelength), a highly desirable property. Many surviving Aero-Ektar lenses have a tea colored tint, possibly due to radiation damage to the glass.

As these lenses were used for aerial reconnaissance, the radiation level is not high enough to fog film over a short period. This would indicate the radiation level is reasonably safe. However. when not in use, it would be prudent to store these lenses as far as possible from normally inhabited areas; allowing the inverse square relationship to attenuate the radiation.^[33]

References

• Isotope masses from:
  • G. Audi; A. H. Wapstra; C. Thibault; J. Blachot; O. Bersillon (2003). "The NUBASE evaluation of nuclear and decay properties" (PDF). Nuclear Physics A. 729: 3–128. Bibcode:2003NuPhA.729....3A. doi:10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2003.11.001. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-09-23. 
• Isotopic compositions and standard atomic masses from:
  • J. R. de Laeter; J. K. Böhlke; P. De Bièvre; H. Hidaka; H. S. Peiser; K. J. R. Rosman; P. D. P. Taylor (2003). "Atomic weights of the elements. Review 2000 (IUPAC Technical Report)". Pure and Applied Chemistry. 75 (6): 683–800. doi:10.1351/pac200375060683. 
  • M. E. Wieser (2006). "Atomic weights of the elements 2005 (IUPAC Technical Report)". Pure and Applied Chemistry. 78 (11): 2051–2066. doi:10.1351/pac200678112051. Lay summary. 
• Half-life, spin, and isomer data selected from the following sources. See editing notes on this article's talk page.
  • G. Audi; A. H. Wapstra; C. Thibault; J. Blachot; O. Bersillon (2003). "The NUBASE evaluation of nuclear and decay properties" (PDF). Nuclear Physics A. 729: 3–128. Bibcode:2003NuPhA.729....3A. doi:10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2003.11.001. 
  • National Nuclear Data Center. "NuDat 2.1 database". Brookhaven National Laboratory. Retrieved September 2005.  Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  • N. E. Holden (2004). "Table of the Isotopes". In D. R. Lide. CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (85th ed.). CRC Press. Section 11. ISBN 978-0-8493-0485-9.