Line of succession to the former Ottoman throne

The Ottoman Dynasty had unusual succession practices compared to other monarchies.^[1] Those succession practices changed over time, and ultimately the sultanate was abolished in 1922. Later, the House of Osman (Turkish: Osmanoğlu Ailesi) continued the latest succession practice for the head of the family.

Succession practices

From the fourteenth through the late sixteenth centuries, the Ottomans practiced open succession – something historian Donald Quataert has described as "survival of the fittest, not eldest, son." During their father's lifetime, all adult sons of the reigning sultan obtained provincial governorships. Accompanied and mentored by their mothers, they would gather supporters while ostensibly following a Ghazi ethos. Upon the death of the reigning sultan, his sons would fight amongst themselves until one emerged triumphant. A prince's proximity to Constantinople improved his chances of succession, simply because he would hear of his father's death and declare himself Sultan first. A sultan could thus hint at his preferred successor by giving a favourite son a closer governorship. Bayezid II, for instance, had to fight his brother Cem Sultan in the 1480s for the right to rule.

Occasionally, the half-brothers would begin the struggle even before the death of their father. Under Suleiman the Magnificent (1520–1566), strife between his sons Mustafa and Selim caused such internal turmoil that Suleiman ordered the deaths of both Mustafa and another son, Bayezid, leaving Selim the sole heir.

During the reigns of Suleiman and Selim II, the Haseki Sultan (Ottoman Turkish: حسکي سلطان) or chief consort rose to greater prominence. Gaining power within the Imperial Harem, the favourite was able to manoeuvre to ensure the succession for one of her sons. This led to a short period of effective primogeniture. However, unlike the earlier period, when the sultan had already defeated his brothers and potential rivals for the throne in battle, these sultans had the problem of many half-brothers who could act as the focus for rival factions. Thus, to prevent attempts at seizing the throne, reigning sultans practiced fratricide upon accession, starting with Murat I in 1362.^[2] Both Murad III and his son Mehmed III had their half-brothers murdered. The killing of all the new sultan's brothers and half-brothers (which were usually quite numerous) was traditionally done by manual strangling with a silk cord. As the centuries passed, the ritual killing was gradually replaced by lifetime solitary confinement in the "Golden Cage" or kafes, a room in the harem from where the sultan's brothers could never escape, unless perchance they became heir presumptive. Some had already become mentally unstable by the time they were asked to reign.

Mehmed III was the last sultan to have previously held a provincial governorship. Sons now remained within the harem until the death of their father. This not only denied them the ability to form powerful factions capable of usurping their father, but also denied them the opportunity to have children while their father remained alive. Thus, when Mehmet's son came to the throne as Ahmed I, he had no children of his own. Moreover, as a minor, there was no evidence he could have children. This had the potential to create a crisis of succession and led to a gradual end to fratricide. Ahmed had some of his brothers killed, but not Mustafa (later Mustafa I). Similarly, Osman II allowed his half-brothers Murad and Ibrahim to live. This led to a shift in the 17th century from a system of primogeniture to one based on agnatic seniority, in which the eldest male within the dynasty succeeded, also to guarantee adult sultans and prevent both fratricides as well as the sultanate of women. Thus, Mustafa succeeded his brother Ahmed; Suleiman II and Ahmed II succeeded their brother Mehmed IV before being succeeded in turn by Mehmed's son Mustafa II. Agnatic seniority explains why from the 17th century onwards a deceased sultan was rarely succeeded by his own son, but usually by an uncle or brother. It also meant that potential rulers had to wait a long time in the kafes before ascending the throne, hence the old age of certain sultans upon their enthronement.^[3] Although attempts were made in the 19th century to replace agnatic seniority with primogeniture, they were unsuccessful, and seniority was retained until the abolition of the sultanate in 1922.^[4]

List of heirs since 1922

The Ottoman dynasty was expelled from Turkey in 1924 and most members took on the surname Osmanoğlu, meaning "son of Osman."^[5] The female members of the dynasty were allowed to return after 1951,^[5] and the male members after 1973.^[6] Below is a list of people who would have been heirs to the Ottoman throne following the abolition of the sultanate on 1 November 1922.^[6] These people have not necessarily made any claim to the throne; for example, Ertuğrul Osman said "Democracy works well in Turkey."^[7]

• Mehmed VI, last Ottoman Sultan (1918–1922) then 36th Head of the House of Osman in exile (1922–1926).^[6]
• Abdülmecid II, last Ottoman Caliph (1922–1924) then 37th Head of the House of Osman following Mehmed VI's death (1926–1944).^[6]
• Ahmed Nihad, 38th Head of the House of Osman (1944–1954), grandson of Sultan Murad V.^[6]
• Osman Fuad, 39th Head of the House of Osman (1954–1973), half-brother of Ahmed Nihad.^[6]
• Mehmed Abdulaziz, 40th Head of the House of Osman (1973–1977), grandson of Sultan Abdülaziz I.^[6]
• Ali Vâsib Efendi, 41st Head of the House of Osman (1977–1983), son of Ahmed IV Nihad.^[6]
• Mehmed Orhan Osmanoğlu, 42nd Head of the House of Osman (1983–1994), grandson of Sultan Abdul Hamid II.^[8]
• Osman Ertuğrul Osmanoğlu, 43rd Head of the House of Osman (1994–2009), grandson of Sultan Abdul Hamid II.^[7]
• Osman Bayezid Osmanoğlu, 44th Head of the House of Osman (2009–2017), great-grandson of Sultan Abdülmecid I.^[9]
• Dündar Ali Osman Osmanoğlu, 45th Head of the House of Osman (2017–present), great-grandson of Sultan Abdul Hamid II.

Current line of succession

According to genealogies of the House of Osman, there would hypothetically be 24 princes now in the line of succession after Dündar Aliosman, if the sultanate had not been abolished.^[10][11][12] They are listed as follows; the succession law used is agnatic seniority, with the succession passing to eldest male dynast.^[13]