Stainless steel

Stainless steel cladding is used on the Walt Disney Concert Hall

In metallurgy, stainless steel, also known as inox steel or inox from French inoxydable (inoxidizable), is a steel alloy with a minimum of 10.5%[1] chromium content by mass.

Stainless steel is notable for its corrosion resistance, and it is widely used for food handling and cutlery among many other applications.

Stainless steel is used for corrosion-resistant tools such as this nutcracker

Stainless steel does not readily corrode, rust or stain with water as ordinary steel does. However, it is not fully stain-proof in low-oxygen, high-salinity, or poor air-circulation environments.[2]

There are various grades and surface finishes of stainless steel to suit the environment the alloy must endure. Stainless steel is used where both the properties of steel and corrosion resistance are required.

Stainless steel differs from carbon steel by the amount of chromium present. Unprotected carbon steel rusts readily when exposed to air and moisture. This iron oxide film (the rust) is active and accelerates corrosion by making it easier for more iron oxide to form. Since iron oxide has lower density than steel, the film expands and tends to flake and fall away. In comparison, stainless steels contain sufficient chromium to undergo passivation, forming an inert film of chromium oxide on the surface. This layer prevents further corrosion by blocking oxygen diffusion to the steel surface and stops corrosion from spreading into the bulk of the metal.[3] Passivation occurs only if the proportion of chromium is high enough and oxygen is present in it.

Stainless steel’s resistance to corrosion and staining, low maintenance, and familiar lustre make it an ideal material for many applications. The alloy is milled into coils, sheets, plates, bars, wire, and tubing to be used in cookware, cutlery, household hardware, surgical instruments, major appliances, industrial equipment (for example, in sugar refineries) and as an automotive and aerospace structural alloy and construction material in large buildings. Storage tanks and tankers used to transport orange juice and other food are often made of stainless steel, because of its corrosion resistance. This also influences its use in commercial kitchens and food processing plants, as it can be steam-cleaned and sterilized and does not need paint or other surface finishes.

Properties

Stainless steel (row 3) resists salt-water corrosion better than aluminum-bronze (row 1) or copper-nickel alloys (row 2)
Stainless steel is not completely immune to corrosion in this desalination equipment

Oxidation

High oxidation resistance in air at ambient temperature is normally achieved with addition of a minimum of 13% (by weight) chromium, and up to 26% is used for harsh environments.[4] The chromium forms a passivation layer of chromium(III) oxide (Cr2O3) when exposed to oxygen. The layer is too thin to be visible, and the metal remains lustrous and smooth. The layer is impervious to water and air, protecting the metal beneath, and this layer quickly reforms when the surface is scratched. This phenomenon is called passivation and is seen in other metals, such as aluminium and titanium. Corrosion resistance can be adversely affected if the component is used in a non-oxygenated environment, a typical example being underwater keel bolts buried in timber.

When stainless steel parts such as nuts and bolts are forced together, the oxide layer can be scraped off, allowing the parts to weld together. When forcibly disassembled, the welded material may be torn and pitted, a destructive effect known as galling. Galling can be avoided by the use of dissimilar materials for the parts forced together, for example bronze and stainless steel, or even different types of stainless steels (martensitic against austenitic). However, two different alloys electrically connected in a humid, even mildly acidic environment may act as a voltaic pile and corrode faster. Nitronic alloys, made by selective alloying with manganese and nitrogen, may have a reduced tendency to gall. Additionally, threaded joints may be lubricated to provide a film between the two parts and prevent galling. Low-temperature carburizing is another option that virtually eliminates galling and allows the use of similar materials without the risk of corrosion and the need for lubrication.

Acids

Stainless steel is generally highly resistant to attack from acids, but this quality depends on the kind and concentration of the acid, the surrounding temperature, and the type of steel. Type 904 is resistant to sulfuric acid at room temperature, even in high concentrations; types 316 and 317 are resistant below 10%; and type 304 should not be used in the presence of sulfuric acid at any concentration. All types of stainless steel resist attack from phosphoric acid, types 316 and 317 more so than 304; types 304L and 430 have been successfully used with nitric acid. Hydrochloric acid will damage any kind of stainless steel, and should be avoided.[5]

Bases

The 300 series of stainless steel grades is unaffected by any of the weak bases such as ammonium hydroxide, even in high concentrations and at high temperatures. The same grades of stainless exposed to stronger bases such as sodium hydroxide at high concentrations and high temperatures will likely experience some etching and cracking, especially with solutions containing chlorides such as sodium hypochlorite.[5]

Organics

Types 316 and 317 are both useful for storing and handling acetic acid, especially in solutions where it is combined with formic acid and when aeration is not present (oxygen helps protect stainless steel under such conditions), though 317 provides the greatest level of resistance to corrosion. Type 304 is also commonly used with formic acid though it will tend to discolor the solution. All grades resist damage from aldehydes and amines, though in the latter case grade 316 is preferable to 304; cellulose acetate will damage 304 unless the temperature is kept low. Fats and fatty acids only affect grade 304 at temperatures above 150 °C (302 °F), and grade 316 above 260 °C (500 °F), while 317 is unaffected at all temperatures. Type 316L is required for processing of urea.[5]

Electricity and magnetism

left nut is not in inox and is rusty
Poor selection of materials can cause galvanic corrosion to other metals in contact with stainless steel

Like steel, stainless steel is a relatively poor conductor of electricity, with significantly lower electrical conductivity than copper. Other metals in contact with stainless steel, particularly in a damp or acidic environment, may suffer galvanic corrosion even though the stainless metal may be unaffected.

Ferritic and martensitic stainless steels are magnetic. Annealed austenitic stainless steels are non-magnetic. Work hardening can make austenitic stainless steels slightly magnetic.

History

An announcement, as it appeared in the 1915 New York Times, of the development of stainless steel in Sheffield, England.[6]

The corrosion resistance of iron-chromium alloys was first recognized in 1821 by French metallurgist Pierre Berthier, who noted their resistance against attack by some acids and suggested their use in cutlery. Metallurgists of the 19th century were unable to produce the combination of low carbon and high chromium found in most modern stainless steels, and the high-chromium alloys they could produce were too brittle to be practical.

In 1872, the Englishmen Clark and Woods patented an alloy that would today be considered a stainless steel.[7]

In the late 1890s Hans Goldschmidt of Germany developed an aluminothermic (thermite) process for producing carbon-free chromium. Between 1904 and 1911 several researchers, particularly Leon Guillet of France, prepared alloys that would today be considered stainless steel.[8]

Friedrich Krupp Germaniawerft built the 366-ton sailing yacht Germania featuring a chrome-nickel steel hull in Germany in 1908.[9] In 1911, Philip Monnartz reported on the relationship between chromium content and corrosion resistance. On 17 October 1912, Krupp engineers Benno Strauss and Eduard Maurer patented austenitic stainless steel as Nirosta.[10][11][12]

Similar developments were taking place contemporaneously in the United States, where Christian Dantsizen and Frederick Becket were industrializing ferritic stainless steel. In 1912, Elwood Haynes applied for a US patent on a martensitic stainless steel alloy, which was not granted until 1919.[13]

Monument to Harry Brearley at the former Brown Firth Research Laboratory in Sheffield, England

In 1912, Harry Brearley of the Brown-Firth research laboratory in Sheffield, England, while seeking a corrosion-resistant alloy for gun barrels, discovered and subsequently industrialized a martensitic stainless steel alloy. The discovery was announced two years later in a January 1915 newspaper article in The New York Times.[6] The metal was later marketed under the "Staybrite" brand by Firth Vickers in England and was used for the new entrance canopy for the Savoy Hotel in London in 1929.[14] Brearley applied for a US patent during 1915 only to find that Haynes had already registered a patent. Brearley and Haynes pooled their funding and with a group of investors formed the American Stainless Steel Corporation, with headquarters in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.[15]

In the beginning stainless steel was sold in the US under different brand names like "Allegheny metal" and "Nirosta steel". Even within the metallurgy industry the eventual name remained unsettled; in 1921 one trade journal was calling it "unstainable steel".[16] In 1929, before the Great Depression hit, over 25,000 tons of stainless steel were manufactured and sold in the US.[17]

Types

Several heavy pieces of bent pipe with flange connections, strapped down to a wooden pallet
Pipes and fittings made of stainless steel

There are different types of stainless steels: when nickel is added, for instance, the austenite structure of iron is stabilized. This crystal structure makes such steels virtually non-magnetic and less brittle at low temperatures. For greater hardness and strength, more carbon is added. With proper heat treatment, these steels are used for such products as razor blades, cutlery, and tools.

Significant quantities of manganese have been used in many stainless steel compositions. Manganese preserves an austenitic structure in the steel, similar to nickel, but at a lower cost.

Stainless steels are also classified by their crystalline structure:

  • 200 Series—austenitic chromium-nickel-manganese alloys. Type 201 is hardenable through cold working; Type 202 is a general purpose stainless steel. Decreasing nickel content and increasing manganese results in weak corrosion resistance.[18]
  • 300 Series. The most widely used austenite steel is the 304, also known as 18/8 for its composition of 18% chromium and 8% nickel.[19] 304 may be referred to as A2 stainless (not to be confused with AISI grade A2 air hardening alloy tool steel containing about 5% chromium). The second most common austenite steel is the 316 grade, also referred to as A4 stainless and called marine grade stainless, used primarily for its increased resistance to corrosion. A typical composition of 18% chromium and 10% nickel, commonly known as 18/10 stainless, is often used in cutlery and high-quality cookware. 18/0 is also available.
Superaustenitic stainless steels, such as Allegheny Ludlum alloy AL-6XN and 254SMO, exhibit great resistance to chloride pitting and crevice corrosion because of high molybdenum content (>6%) and nitrogen additions, and the higher nickel content ensures better resistance to stress-corrosion cracking versus the 300 series. The higher alloy content of superaustenitic steels makes them more expensive. Other steels can offer similar performance at lower cost and are preferred in certain applications. For example ASTM A387 is used in pressure vessels but is a low-alloy carbon steel with a chromium content of 0.5% to 9%.[20] Low-carbon versions, for example 316L or 304L, are used to avoid corrosion problems caused by welding. Grade 316LVM is preferred where biocompatibility is required (such as body implants and piercings).[21] The "L" means that the carbon content of the alloy is below 0.03%, which reduces the sensitization effect (precipitation of chromium carbides at grain boundaries) caused by the high temperatures involved in welding.
Swiss Army knives are made of martensitic stainless steel.
The properties of duplex stainless steels are achieved with an overall lower alloy content than similar-performing super-austenitic grades, making their use cost-effective for many applications. Duplex grades are characterized into groups based on their alloy content and corrosion resistance.
  • Lean duplex refers to grades such as UNS S32101 (LDX 2101), S32202 (UR2202), S32304, and S32003.
  • Standard duplex refers to grades with 22% chromium, such as UNS S31803/S32205, with 2205 being the most widely used.
  • Super duplex is by definition a duplex stainless steel with a Pitting Resistance Equivalent Number (PREN) > 40, where PREN = %Cr + 3.3x(%Mo + 0.5x%W) + 16x%N. Usually super duplex grades have 25% or more chromium. Some common examples are S32760 (Zeron 100 via Rolled Alloys), S32750 (2507), and S32550 (Ferralium 255 via Langley Alloys).
  • Hyper duplex refers to duplex grades with a PRE > 48. UNS S32707 and S33207 are the only grades currently available on the market.

The designation "CRES" is used in various industries to refer to corrosion-resistant steel. Most mentions of CRES refer to stainless steel, although the correspondence is not absolute, because there are other materials that are corrosion-resistant but not stainless steel.[22]

Grades

There are over 150 grades of stainless steel, of which 15 are most commonly used. There are a number of systems for grading stainless and other steels, including US SAE steel grades.

Comparison of standardized steels

EN-standard

Steel no. k.h.s DIN

 EN-standard

Steel name

 SAE grade UNS
1.4512 X6CrTi12 409 S40900
410 S41000
1.4016 X6Cr17 430 S43000
1.4109 X65CrMo14 440A S44002
1.4112 X90CrMoV18 440B S44003
1.4125 X105CrMo17 440C S44004
440F S44020
1.4310 X10CrNi18-8 301 S30100
1.4318 X2CrNiN18-7 301LN
1.4301 X5CrNi18-10 304 S30400
1.4307 X2CrNi18-9 304L S30403
1.4306 X2CrNi19-11 304L S30403
1.4311 X2CrNiN18-10 304LN S30453
1.4948 X6CrNi18-11 304H S30409
1.4303 X5CrNi18-12 305 S30500
X5CrNi30-9 312
1.4841 X22CrNi2520 310 S31000
1.4845 X 5 CrNi 2520 310S S31008
1.4401 X5CrNiMo17-12-2 316 S31600
1.4408 G-X 6 CrNiMo 18-10 316 S31600
1.4436 X3CrNiMo17-13-3 316 S31600
1.4406 X2CrNiMoN17-12-2 316LN S31653
1.4404 X2CrNiMo17-12-2 316L S31603
1.4432 X2CrNiMo17-12-3 316L S31603
1.4435 X2CrNiMo18-14-3 316L S31603
1.4571 X6CrNiMoTi17-12-2 316Ti S31635
1.4429 X2CrNiMoN17-13-3 316LN S31653
1.4438 X2CrNiMo18-15-4 317L S31703
1.4541 X6CrNiTi18-10 321 S32100
1.4878 X12CrNiTi18-9 321H S32109
1.4362 X2CrNi23-4 2304 S32304
1.4462 X2CrNiMoN22-5-3 2205 S31803/S32205
1.4501 X2CrNiMoCuWN25-7-4 J405 S32760
1.4539 X1NiCrMoCu25-20-5 904L N08904
1.4529 X1NiCrMoCuN25-20-7 N08926
1.4547 X1CrNiMoCuN20-18-7 254SMO S31254

Standard finishes

Matte surface of pipe, with a few horizontal scratches
316L stainless steel, with an unpolished, mill finish

Standard mill finishes can be applied to flat rolled stainless steel directly by the rollers and by mechanical abrasives. Steel is first rolled to size and thickness and then annealed to change the properties of the final material. Any oxidation that forms on the surface (mill scale) is removed by pickling, and a passivation layer is created on the surface. A final finish can then be applied to achieve the desired aesthetic appearance.

Applications

The arch rises from the bottom left of the picture and is shown against a featureless clear sky
The 630-foot-high (190 m), stainless-clad (type 304) Gateway Arch defines St. Louis's skyline
The pinnacle of New York's Chrysler Building is clad with Nirosta stainless steel, a form of Type 302[23][24]
A stylized figure of a male human with outstretched arms and head tilted slightly forward, wearing a winged and crested helmet, mounted on the facade of a building
An art deco sculpture on the Niagara-Mohawk Power building in Syracuse, New York
Stainless steel is often used for cookware
Stainless steel is used for industrial equipment when durability and cleanability are important

Architecture

Stainless steel is used for buildings for both practical and aesthetic reasons. Stainless steel was in vogue during the art deco period. The most famous example of this is the upper portion of the Chrysler Building (pictured). Some diners and fast-food restaurants use large ornamental panels and stainless fixtures and furniture. Because of the durability of the material, many of these buildings still retain their original appearance. Stainless steel is used today in building construction because of its durability and because it is a weldable building metal that can be made into aesthetically pleasing shapes. An example of a building in which these properties are exploited is the Art Gallery of Alberta in Edmonton, which is wrapped in stainless steel.

Type 316 stainless is used on the exterior of both the Petronas Twin Towers and the Jin Mao Building, two of the world's tallest skyscrapers.[24]

The Parliament House of Australia in Canberra has a stainless steel flagpole weighing over 220 tonnes (240 short tons).

The aeration building in the Edmonton Composting Facility, the size of 14 hockey rinks, is the largest stainless steel building in North America.

Bridges

The Helix Bridge is a pedestrian bridge linking Marina Centre with Marina South in the Marina Bay area in Singapore.

Monuments and sculptures
Airports

Stainless steel is a modern trend for roofing material for airports due to its low glare reflectance to keep pilots from being blinded, also for its properties that allow thermal reflectance in order to keep the surface of the roof close to ambient temperature. The Hamad International Airport in Qatar was built with all stainless steel roofing for these reasons, as well as the Sacramento International Airport in California.

Locomotion

Automotive bodies

The Allegheny Ludlum Corporation worked with Ford on various concept cars with stainless steel bodies from the 1930s through the 1970s to demonstrate the material's potential. The 1957 and 1958 Cadillac Eldorado Brougham had a stainless steel roof. In 1981 and 1982, the DeLorean DMC-12 production automobile used Type-304 stainless steel body panels over a glass-reinforced plastic monocoque. Intercity buses made by Motor Coach Industries are partially made of stainless steel. The aft body panel of the Porsche Cayman model (2-door coupe hatchback) is made of stainless steel. It was discovered during early body prototyping that conventional steel could not be formed without cracking (due to the many curves and angles in that automobile). Thus, Porsche was forced to use stainless steel on the Cayman.

Some automotive manufacturers use stainless steel as decorative highlights in their vehicles.

Passenger rail cars

Rail cars have commonly been manufactured using corrugated stainless steel panels (for additional structural strength). This was particularly popular during the 1960s and 1970s, but has since declined. One notable example was the early Pioneer Zephyr. Notable former manufacturers of stainless steel rolling stock included the Budd Company (USA), which has been licensed to Japan's Tokyu Car Corporation, and the Portuguese company Sorefame. Many railcars in the United States are still manufactured with stainless steel, unlike other countries who have shifted away.

Aircraft

Budd also built two airplanes, the Budd BB-1 Pioneer and the Budd RB-1 Conestoga, of stainless steel tube and sheet. The first, which had fabric wing coverings, is on display at the Franklin Institute, being the longest continuous display of an aircraft ever, since 1934. The RB-2 Was almost all stainless steel, save for the control surfaces. One survives at the Pima Air & Space Museum, adjacent to Davis–Monthan Air Force Base.

The American Fleetwings Sea Bird amphibious aircraft of 1936 was also built using a spot-welded stainless steel hull.

Due to its thermal stability, the Bristol Aeroplane Company built the all-stainless steel Bristol 188 high-speed research aircraft, which first flew in 1963. However, the practical problems encountered meant that Concorde employed aluminium alloys.

The use of stainless steel in mainstream aircraft is hindered by its excessive weight compared to other materials, such as aluminium.

Medicine

Surgical tools and medical equipment are usually made of stainless steel, because of its durability and ability to be sterilized in an autoclave. In addition, surgical implants such as bone reinforcements and replacements (e.g. hip sockets and cranial plates) are made with special alloys formulated to resist corrosion, mechanical wear, and biological reactions in vivo.

Stainless steel is used in a variety of applications in dentistry. It is common to use stainless steel in many instruments that need to be sterilized, such as needles,[27] endodontic files in root canal therapy, metal posts in root canal–treated teeth, temporary crowns and crowns for deciduous teeth, and arch wires and brackets in orthodontics.[28] The surgical stainless steel alloys (e.g., 316 low-carbon steel) have also been used in some of the early dental implants.[29]

Culinary use

Stainless steel is often preferred for kitchen sinks because of its ruggedness, durability, heat resistance, and ease of cleaning. In better models, acoustic noise is controlled by applying resilient undercoating to dampen vibrations. The material is also used for cladding of surfaces such as appliances and backsplashes.

Cookware and bakeware may be clad in stainless steels, to enhance their cleanability and durability, and to permit their use in induction cooking. Because stainless steel is a poor conductor of heat, it is often used as a thin surface cladding over a core of copper or aluminum, which conduct heat more readily.

Cutlery is normally stainless steel, both for low corrosion, ease of cleaning, negligible toxicity, as well as not flavoring the food by electrolytic activity.

Jewelry

Stainless steel is used for jewelry and watches, with 316L being the type commonly used for such applications. It can be re-finished by any jeweler and will not oxidize or turn black.

Valadium, a stainless steel and 12% nickel alloy is used to make class and military rings. Valadium is usually silver-toned, but can be electro-plated to give it a gold tone. The gold tone variety is known as Sun-lite Valadium.[30] Other "Valadium" types of alloy are trade-named differently, with such names as "Siladium" and "White Lazon".

Firearms

Some firearms incorporate stainless steel components as an alternative to blued or parkerized steel. Some handgun models, such as the Smith & Wesson Model 60 and the Colt M1911 pistol, can be made entirely from stainless steel. This gives a high-luster finish similar in appearance to nickel plating. Unlike plating, the finish is not subject to flaking, peeling, wear-off from rubbing (as when repeatedly removed from a holster), or rust when scratched.

3D printing

Some 3D printing providers have developed proprietary stainless steel sintering blends for use in rapid prototyping. One of the more popular stainless steel grades used in 3D printing is 316L stainless steel. Due to the high temperature gradient and fast rate of solidification, stainless steel products manufactured via 3D printing tend to have a more refined microstructure; this in turn results in better mechanical properties. However, stainless steel is not used as much as materials like Ti6Al4V in the 3D printing industry; this is because manufacturing stainless steel products via traditional methods is currently much more economically competitive.

Recycling and reusing

Stainless steel is 100% recyclable. An average stainless steel object is composed of about 60% recycled material of which approximately 40% originates from end-of-life products and about 60% comes from manufacturing processes.[31] According to the International Resource Panel's Metal Stocks in Society report, the per capita stock of stainless steel in use in society is 80–180 kg in more developed countries and 15 kg in less-developed countries.

There is a secondary market that recycles usable scrap for many stainless steel markets. The product is mostly coil, sheet, and blanks. This material is purchased at a less-than-prime price and sold to commercial quality stampers and sheet metal houses. The material may have scratches, pits, and dents but is made to the current specifications.

Nanoscale stainless steel

Stainless steel nanoparticles have been produced in the laboratory.[32] This synthesis uses oxidative Kirkendall Diffusion to build a thin protective barrier which prevent further oxidation.[33] These may have applications as additives for high performance applications. For examples, sulfurization, phosphorization and nitridation treatments to produce nanoscale stainless steel based catalysts could enhance the electrocatalytic performance of stainless steel for water splitting.[34]

Health effects

Stainless steel is generally considered to be biologically inert, but some sensitive individuals develop a skin irritation due to a nickel allergy caused by certain alloys.

See also

References

  1. ↑ "The Stainless Steel Family" (PDF). Retrieved 8 December 2012.
  2. ↑ "Why is Stainless Steel Stainless?". Archived from the original on 28 September 2013. Retrieved 6 September 2013.
  3. ↑ Jianhai Qiu. "Stainless Steels and Alloys: Why They Resist Corrosion and How They Fail". Corrosionclinic.com. Retrieved on 29 June 2012.
  4. ↑ Ashby, Michael F.; David R. H. Jones (1992) [1986]. "Chapter 12". Engineering Materials 2 (with corrections ed.). Oxford: Pergamon Press. p. 119. ISBN 0-08-032532-7.
  5. 1 2 3 Davis (1994), Stainless Steels, Joseph R., ASM International, p. 118, ISBN 978-0-87170-503-7
  6. 1 2 "A non-rusting steel". New York Times. 31 January 1915.
  7. ↑ "It’s Complicated: The Discovery of Stainless Steel - Airedale Springs".
  8. ↑ "The Discovery of Stainless Steel".
  9. ↑ "A Proposal to Establish the Shipwreck Half Moon as a State Underwater Archaeological Preserve" (PDF). Bureau of Archaeological Research, Division of Historical Resources, Florida Department of State. May 2000.
  10. ↑ "ThyssenKrupp Nirosta: History". Archived from the original on 2 September 2007. Retrieved 13 August 2007.
  11. ↑ "DEPATISnet-Dokument DE000000304126A".
  12. ↑ "DEPATISnet-Dokument DE000000304159A".
  13. ↑ Carlisle, Rodney P. (2004) Scientific American Inventions and Discoveries, p. 380, John Wiley and Sons, ISBN 0-471-24410-4
  14. ↑ Howse, Geoffrey (2011) A Photographic History of Sheffield Steel, History Press, ISBN 0752459856
  15. ↑ Cobb, Harold M. (2010). The History of Stainless Steel. ASM International. p. 360. ISBN 1-61503-010-7.
  16. ↑ Moneypenny, J.H.G. (1921). "Unstainable Steel". Mining and Scientific Press. Retrieved 17 February 2013.
  17. ↑ Bonnier Corporation (1930). Popular Science. Bonnier Corporation. pp. 31–. ISSN 0161-7370.
  18. ↑ Habara, Yasuhiro. Stainless Steel 200 Series: An Opportunity for Mn. Technical Development Dept., Nippon Metal Industry, Co., Ltd.
  19. ↑ Stainless Steel – Grade 304 (UNS S30400). azom.com
  20. ↑ ASTM A 387/ A387M – 06a Standard Specification for Pressure Vessel Plates, Alloy Steel, Chromium-Molybdenum
  21. ↑ Material Properties Data: Marine Grade Stainless Steel. Makeitfrom.com. Retrieved on 29 June 2012.
  22. ↑ Specialty Steel Industry of North America (SSINA), Frequently asked questions, retrieved 2017-04-06.
  23. ↑ Start of production: First coil on new mill at the Wayback Machine (archived 30 May 2013). thyssenkrupp-nirosta.de
  24. 1 2 What is Stainless Steel? at the Wayback Machine (archived 24 September 2006) nickelinstitute.org
  25. ↑ "Stainless Steel Bridge in Bilbao". Outokumpu. "Stainless steel bridge". Archived from the original on 22 January 2013.
  26. ↑ Gateway Arch Fact Sheet. Nps.gov. Retrieved on 29 June 2012.
  27. ↑ Malamed, Stanley (2004). Handbook of Local Anesthesia, 5th Edition. Mosby. ISBN 0323024491. p. 99
  28. ↑ Anusavice, Kenneth J. (2003) Phillips' Science of Dental Materials, 11th Edition. W.B. Saunders Company. ISBN 0721693873. p. 639
  29. ↑ Misch, Carl E. (2008) Contemporary Implant Dentistry. Mosby. ISBN 0323043739. pp. 277–278
  30. ↑ "What is Valadium?".
  31. ↑ "The Recycling of Stainless Steel ("Recycled Content" and "Input Composition" slides)" (Flash). International Stainless Steel Forum. 2006. Retrieved 19 November 2006.
  32. ↑ Wu, Wenjie; Maye, Mathew M. (2014-01-01). "Void Coalescence in Core/Alloy Nanoparticles with Stainless Interfaces". Small. 10 (2): 271–276. doi:10.1002/smll.201301420.
  33. ↑ , Maye, Mathew M. & Wenjie Wu, "United States Patent Application: 0140272447 - METHOD TO CONTROL VOID FORMATION IN NANOMATERIALS USING CORE/ALLOY NANOPARTICLES WITH STAINLESS INTERFACES"
  34. ↑ http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/acssuschemeng.7b00182

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