Splitting (psychology)

Splitting (also called black-and-white thinking or all-or-nothing thinking) is the failure in a person's thinking to bring together the dichotomy of both positive and negative qualities of the self and others into a cohesive, realistic whole. It is a common defense mechanism used by many people.[1] The individual tends to think in extremes (i.e., an individual's actions and motivations are all good or all bad with no middle ground).

The concept of splitting was developed by Ronald Fairbairn in his formulation of object relations theory;[2] it begins as the inability of the infant to combine the fulfilling aspects of the parents (the good object) and their unresponsive aspects (the unsatisfying object) into the same individuals, instead seeing the good and bad as separate. In psychoanalytic theory this functions as a defense mechanism.[3]

Relationships

Splitting creates instability in relationships because one person can be viewed as either personified virtue or personified vice at different times, depending on whether they gratify the subject's needs or frustrate them. This, along with similar oscillations in the experience and appraisal of the self, leads to chaotic and unstable relationship patterns, identity diffusion, and mood swings. The therapeutic process can be greatly impeded by these oscillations, because the therapist too can come to be seen as all good or all bad. To attempt to overcome the negative effects on treatment outcome, constant interpretations by the therapist are needed.[4]

Splitting contributes to unstable relationships and intense emotional experiences. Splitting is common during adolescence, but is regarded as transient. Splitting has been noted especially with persons diagnosed with borderline personality disorder.[5][6] Treatment strategies have been developed for individuals and groups based on dialectical behavior therapy, and for couples.[7] There are also self-help books on related topics such as mindfulness and emotional regulation that have been helpful for individuals who struggle with the consequences of splitting.[8]

Borderline personality disorder

Splitting is a relatively common defense mechanism for people with borderline personality disorder.[6] One of the DSM IV-TR criteria for this disorder is a description of splitting: "a pattern of unstable and intense interpersonal relationships characterized by alternating between extremes of idealization and devaluation".[9][10] In psychoanalytic theory, people with borderline personality disorder are not able to integrate the good and bad images of both self and others, resulting in a bad representation which dominates the good representation.[11] This school hypothesizes that they consequently experience love and sexuality as perverse and violent qualities which they cannot integrate with the tender, intimate side of relationships.[12]

Narcissistic personality disorder

People matching the diagnostic criteria for narcissistic personality disorder also use splitting as a central defence mechanism. Most often the narcissist does this as an attempt to stabilize their sense of self positivity in order to preserve their self-esteem, by perceiving themselves as purely upright or admirable and others who do not conform to their will or values as purely wicked or contemptible.[13]

The cognitive habit of splitting also implies the use of other related defence mechanisms, namely idealization and devaluation, which are preventive attitudes or reactions to narcissistic rage and narcissistic injury.[11]

Depression

In depression, exaggerated all-or-nothing thinking can form a self-reinforcing cycle: these thoughts might be called emotional amplifiers because, as they go around and around, they become more intense. Typical all-or-nothing thoughts:

Janet, Breuer and Freud

Splitting of consciousness (German: Spaltung)[15] was first described by Pierre Janet in De l'Automatisme Psychologique.[16] His ideas were extended by Bleuler (who in 1908 coined the word schizofrenia[17] from the Ancient Greek skhízō [σχῐ́ζω, "to split"] and phrḗn [φρήν, "mind"]) and Freud[18] to explain splits in consciousness, not (with Janet) as the product of innate weakness, but as the result of inner conflict.[19] With the development of the idea of repression, splitting moved to the background of Freud's thought for some years, being largely reserved for cases of double personality.[20] However his late work saw a renewed interest in how it was "possible for the ego to avoid a rupture... by effecting a cleavage or division of itself",[21] a theme which was extended in his Outline of Psycho-Analysis (1940a [1938]) beyond fetishism to the neurotic in general.[22]

His daughter Anna Freud explored how in healthy childhood development a splitting of loving and aggressive instincts could be avoided.[23]

Melanie Klein

There was, however, from early on, another use of the term "splitting" in Freud, referring rather to resolving ambivalence "by splitting the contradictory feelings so that one person is only loved, another one only hated ... the good mother and the wicked stepmother in fairy tales".[24] Or, with opposing feelings of love and hate, perhaps "the two opposites should have been split apart and one of them, usually the hatred, has been repressed".[25] Such splitting was closely linked to the defence of "isolation ... The division of objects into congenial and uncongenial ones ... making 'disconnections'."[26]

It was the latter sense of the term that was predominantly adopted and exploited by Melanie Klein. After Freud, "the most important contribution has come from Melanie Klein, whose work enlightens the idea of 'splitting of the object' (Objektspaltung)[27] (in terms of 'good/bad' objects)".[28] In her object relations theory, Klein argues that "the earliest experiences of the infant are split between wholly good ones with 'good' objects and wholly bad experiences with 'bad' objects",[29] as children struggle to integrate the two primary drives, love and hate, into constructive social interaction. An important step in childhood development is the gradual depolarization of these two drives.

At what Klein called the paranoid-schizoid position, there is a stark separation of the things the child loves (good, gratifying objects) and the things the child hates (bad, frustrating objects), "because everything is polarised into extremes of love and hate, just like what the baby seems to experience and young children are still very close to."[30] Klein refers to the good breast and the bad breast as split mental entities, resulting from the way "these primitive states tend to deconstruct objects into 'good' and 'bad' bits (called 'part-objects')".[31] The child sees the breasts as opposite in nature at different times, although they actually are the same, belonging to the same mother. As the child learns that people and objects can be good and bad at the same time, he or she progresses to the next phase, the depressive position, which "entails a steady, though painful, approximation towards the reality of oneself and others":[32] integrating the splits and "being able to balance [them] out ... are tasks that continue into early childhood and indeed are never completely finished."[33]

However, Kleinians also utilize Freud's first conception of splitting, to explain the way "In a related process of splitting, the person divides his own self. This is called 'splitting of the ego'."[15][34] Indeed, Klein herself maintained that "the ego is incapable of splitting the object—internal or external—without a corresponding splitting taking place within the ego".[35] Arguably at least, by this point "the idea of splitting does not carry the same meaning for Freud and for Klein": for the former, "the ego finds itself 'passively' split, as it were. For Klein and the post-Kleinians, on the other hand, splitting is an 'active' defence mechanism".[36] As a result, by the close of the century "four kinds of splitting can be clearly identified, among many other possibilities" for post-Kleinians: "a coherent split in the object, a coherent split in the ego, a fragmentation of the object, and a fragmentation of the ego."[37]

Otto Kernberg

In the developmental model of Otto Kernberg, the overcoming of splitting is also an important developmental task.[12] The child has to learn to integrate feelings of love and hate. Kernberg distinguishes three different stages in the development of a child with respect to splitting:

If a person fails to accomplish this developmental task satisfactorily, borderline pathology can emerge. "In the borderline personality organization", Kernberg found 'dissociated ego states that result from the use of "splitting" defences'.[40] His therapeutic work then aimed at "the analysis of the repeated and oscillating projections of unwanted self and object representations onto the therapist" so as to produce "something more durable, complex and encompassing than the initial, split-off and polarized state of affairs".[41]

Horizontal and vertical

Heinz Kohut has emphasised in his self psychology the distinction between horizontal and vertical forms of splitting.[42] Traditional psychoanalysis saw repression as forming a horizontal barrier between different levels of the mind – so that for example an unpleasant truth might be accepted superficially but denied in a deeper part of the psyche.[43] Kohut contrasted with this vertical fractures of the mind into two parts with incompatible attitudes separated by mutual disavowal.[44]

Transference

It has been suggested that interpretation of the transference "becomes effective through a sort of splitting of the ego into a reasonable, judging portion and an experiencing portion, the former recognizing the latter as not appropriate in the present and as coming from the past".[45] Clearly, "in this sense, splitting, so far from being a pathological phenomenon, is a manifestation of self-awareness".[46] Nevertheless, "it remains to be investigated how this desirable 'splitting of the ego' and 'self-observation' are to be differentiated from the pathological cleavage ... directed at preserving isolations".[45]

See also

References

  1. ↑ Carser, D. (1979). "The defense mechanism of splitting: Developmental origins, effects on staff, recommendations for nursing care". Journal of psychiatric nursing and mental health services. 17 (3): 21–8. PMID 224184.
  2. ↑ Rubens, R. L. (1996). "The unique origins of Fairbairn's Theories". Psychoanalytic Dialogues: the International Journal of Relational Perspectives. 6 (3): 413–435. doi:10.1080/10481889609539128.
  3. ↑ Gabbard, Glen O.; Litowitz, Bonnie E.; Williams, Paul, eds. (2011). Textbook of Psychoanalysis (2nd ed.). American Psychiatric Pub. p. 96. ISBN 978-1-58562-410-2.
  4. ↑ Gould, J. R., Prentice, N. M. & Ainslie, R. C. (1996). "The splitting index: construction of a scale measuring the defense mechanism of splitting". Journal of Personality Assessment 66 (2), 414–430.
  5. ↑ What is Borderline personality disorder – Splitting.
  6. 1 2 Mary C. Zanarini; Jolie L. Weingeroff & Frances R. Frankenburg (April 2009). "Defense Mechanisms Associated with Borderline Personality Disorder". J Pers Disord. 23 (2): 113–121. PMC 3203733 Freely accessible. PMID 19379090. doi:10.1521/pedi.2009.23.2.113.
  7. ↑ Siegel,J. P. Repairing Intimacy (1992) and Linehan, M. (1993).
  8. ↑ Jacobs, B. 2004, Siegel, J. 2010.
  9. ↑ "What is Borderline Personality Disorder?". Borderline Personality Disorder Resource Center at New York-Presbyterian Hospital. Retrieved 2013-04-27.
  10. ↑ "Diagnostic criteria for 301.83 Borderline Personality Disorder". DSM IV – TR. Retrieved 14 April 2013.
  11. 1 2 Siegel, J. P. (2006). "Dyadic splitting in partner relational disorders". Journal of Family Psychology, 20 (3), 418–422.
  12. 1 2 Mitchell, Stephen (1995). Freud and Beyond: A History of Modern Psychoanalytic Thought. New York: Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-01405-7.
  13. ↑ Abdennur, the Narcissistic Principle of Equivalence, pp. 88–89.
  14. ↑ Gilbert, p. 63 and p. 98.
  15. 1 2 Laplanche, Jean; Pontalis, Jean-Bertrand (1988) [1973]. "Splitting of the Ego (pp. 427–9)". The Language of Psycho-analysis (reprint, revised ed.). London: Karnac Books. ISBN 978-0-946-43949-2. ISBN 0-94643949-4.
  16. ↑ (in French) Janet, Pierre (1899). De l'Automatisme Psychologique [Of Psychological Automatism].
  17. ↑ (in German) Bleuler, Eugen (1908). "Die Prognose der Dementia Praecox -- Schizophreniegruppe". Allgemeine Zeitschrift fur Psychiatrie. 65: 436–434.
  18. ↑ Sigmund Freud, Five Lectures on Psycho-Analysis (London 1995) p. 25.
  19. ↑ Sigmund Freud, Five Lectures on Psycho-Analysis (London 1995) p. 33.
  20. ↑ Sigmund Freud, On Metapsychology (Middlesex 1987) pp. 53–4.
  21. ↑ Sigmund Freud, On Psychopathology (Middlesex 1987) p. 217.
  22. ↑ Angela Richards, "Editor's Note", Metapsychology p. 460.
  23. ↑ E. Young-Bruehl (2008). Anna Freud. p. 322.
  24. ↑ Fenichel, Neurosis p. 157.
  25. ↑ Sigmund Freud, Case Histories II (London 1991) p. 119.
  26. ↑ Fenichel, Neurosis p. 158.
  27. ↑ Laplanche, Jean; Pontalis, Jean-Bertrand (1973). "Splitting of the Object (p. 430)".
  28. ↑ T. Bokanowski and S. Lewkowicz, On Freud's "Splitting of the ego in the process of defense" (London 2009) p. x.
  29. ↑ Richard Appignanesi ed., Introducing Melanie Klein (Cambridge 2006) np [173].
  30. ↑ Robin Skynner/John Cleese, Families and how to survive them (London 1994) p. 98.
  31. ↑ Appignanesi, Klein p. 123.
  32. ↑ Appignanesi, Klein p. 131.
  33. ↑ Skinner, Families p. 98.
  34. ↑ Appignanesi, Klein p. 125.
  35. ↑ Quoted in Paul Holmes, The inner world outside (1992) p. 117.
  36. ↑ Jean-Michel Quinodoz, Reading Freud (London 2005) p. 252.
  37. ↑ Quoting Robert Hinshelwood, in Quinodoz, Reading Freud p. 252.
  38. ↑ Otto F. Kernberg, Borderline Conditions and Pathological Narcissism (London 1990) p. 165.
  39. ↑ Kernberg, Borderline p. 29
  40. ↑ Paul Brinich and Christopher Shelley, The Self and Personality Structure (Buckingham 2002) p 51
  41. ↑ Brinich, Self p. 51.
  42. ↑ H. Kohut, The Analysis of the Self (1971) p. 79
  43. ↑ O. Fenichel, The Psychoanalytic Theory of Neurosis (1946) p. 145
  44. ↑ H. Kohut, The Analysis of the Self (1971) p. 177 and p. 185
  45. 1 2 Fenichel, Neurosis p. 570.
  46. ↑ Charles Rycroft, A Critical Dictionary of Psychoanalysis (London 1995) p. 174
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