Scottish Gaelic

Scottish Gaelic
Gàidhlig
Pronunciation [ˈkaːlikʲ]
Native to United Kingdom
Canada
Region Scotland; Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia in Canada
Ethnicity Scottish people
Native speakers
 57,000 in Scotland (2011)[1]
87,000 people aged three and over in Scotland reported having some Gaelic language ability in 2011.[1]
Early forms
Scottish Gaelic orthography (Latin script)
Official status
Recognised minority
language in
Language codes
ISO 639-1 gd
ISO 639-2 gla
ISO 639-3 gla
Glottolog scot1245[2]
Linguasphere 50-AAA

1891 distribution of English and Gaelic in Scotland

2001 distribution of Gaelic speakers in Scotland

Scottish Gaelic or Scots Gaelic, sometimes also referred to simply as Gaelic (Gàidhlig [ˈkaːlikʲ]), is a Celtic language native to Scotland. A member of the Goidelic branch of the Celtic languages, Scottish Gaelic, like Modern Irish and Manx, developed out of Middle Irish. Most of modern Scotland was once Gaelic-speaking, as evidenced especially by Gaelic-language placenames.[3]

In the 2011 census of Scotland, 57,375 people (1.1% of the Scottish population aged over three years old) reported as able to speak Gaelic, 1,275 fewer than in 2001. The highest percentages of Gaelic speakers were in the Outer Hebrides.[1][4] Only about half of speakers were fully literate in the language.[1] Nevertheless, there are revival efforts, and the number of speakers of the language under age 20 did not decrease between the 2001 and 2011 censuses.[5]

Scottish Gaelic is neither an official language of the European Union nor of the United Kingdom. However, it is classed as an indigenous language under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages, which the British government has ratified,[6] and the Gaelic Language (Scotland) Act 2005 established a language development body, Bòrd na Gàidhlig.[7]

Outside Scotland, Canadian Gaelic is spoken, mainly in Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island. In the 2011 census, there were 7,195 total speakers of "Gaelic languages" in Canada, with 1,365 in Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island where the responses mainly refer to Scottish Gaelic.[8]

Nomenclature

Anne Lorne Gillies speaking publicly in the Scottish Gaelic language.

Aside from "Scottish Gaelic", the language may also be referred to simply as "Gaelic". In Scotland, the word "Gaelic" in reference to Scottish Gaelic specifically is pronounced [ˈɡalɪk], while outside Scotland it is often pronounced /ˈɡeɪlɪk/.[9] Outside Ireland and Great Britain, "Gaelic" may refer to the Irish language.[10]

Scottish Gaelic should not be confused with Scots, the Middle English-derived language varieties which had come to be spoken in most of the Lowlands of Scotland by the early modern era. Prior to the 15th century, these dialects were known as Inglis ("English") by its own speakers, with Gaelic being called Scottis ("Scottish"). From the late 15th century, however, it became increasingly common for such speakers to refer to Scottish Gaelic as Erse ("Irish") and the Lowland vernacular as Scottis.[11] Today, Scottish Gaelic is recognised as a separate language from Irish, so the word Erse in reference to Scottish Gaelic is no longer used.

History

Linguistic division in early 12th century Scotland.
  Gaelic speaking
  Norse-Gaelic zone, use of either or both languages
  English-speaking zone
  Cumbric may have survived in this zone; more realistically a mixture of Cumbric, Gaelic (west) and English (east)
Coronation of King Alexander III on Moot Hill, Scone on 13 July 1249. He is being greeted by the ollamh rìgh, the royal poet, who is addressing him with the proclamation "Benach De Re Albanne" (= Beannachd Dè Rìgh Alban, "God's Blessing on the King of Scotland"); the poet goes on to recite Alexander's genealogy.

Origins to zenith

Gaelic was brought to Scotland, probably in the 4th–5th centuries CE, by settlers from Ireland who founded the Gaelic kingdom of Dál Riata on Scotland's west coast in present-day Argyll.[12][13] Gaelic in Scotland was mostly confined to Dál Riata until the 8th century, when it began expanding into Pictish areas north of the Firth of Forth and the Firth of Clyde. By 900, Pictish appears to have become extinct, completely replaced by Gaelic.[14] An exception might be made for the Northern Isles, however, where Pictish was more likely supplanted by Norse rather than by Gaelic.[15]

In southern Scotland, place name analysis suggests dense usage of Gaelic in Galloway and adjoining areas to the north and west, as well as in West Lothian and parts of western Midlothian. Less dense usage is suggested for north Ayrshire, Renfrewshire, the Clyde Valley and eastern Dumfriesshire. In south-eastern Scotland, there is no evidence that Gaelic was ever widely spoken: the area shifted from Cumbric to Old English during its long incorporation into the Anglo-Saxon Kingdom of Northumbria.

In 1018 after the conquest of the Lothians by the Kingdom of Scotland, Gaelic reached its social, cultural, political, and geographic zenith in Scotland. Elites spoke Gaelic although some commoners in the Lothians retained Old English.[3] Colloquial speech in Scotland had been developing independently of that in Ireland at least as early as its crossing the Druim Alban into Pictland.[16] In Latin, the entire country was for the first time called Scotia, and Gaelic was the lingua Scotia.[17][18]

Eclipse of Gaelic in Scotland

Many historians mark the reign of King Malcom Canmore (Malcolm III) as the beginning of Gaelic's eclipse in Scotland, because his wife Margaret spoke no Gaelic, gave her children Anglo-Saxon rather than Gaelic names, and brought many English bishops, priests, and monastics to Scotland.[19] When both Malcolm and Margaret died in 1093, the Gaelic aristocracy rejected their anglicised sons and instead backed Malcolm's brother Donald Bàn as the next King of Scots.[20] Sometimes called the ‘last Celtic King of Scotland,’[21] Donald had spent 17 years in Gaelic Ireland and his power base was in the thoroughly Gaelic west of Scotland. He was the last Scottish monarch to be buried on Iona, the one-time centre of the Scottish Gaelic Church and the traditional burial place of the Gaelic Kings of Dàl Riada and the Kingdom of Alba.

During the reigns of the sons of Donald's nephew and successor, Malcolm Canmore (1097–1153), Anglo-Norman names and practices spread throughout Scotland south of the Forth–Clyde line and along the northeastern coastal plain as far north as Moray. Norman French completely displaced Gaelic at court. The establishment of royal burghs throughout the same area, particularly under David I, attracted large numbers of foreigners speaking Old English. This was the beginning of Gaelic's status as a predominantly rural language in Scotland.[22]

Clan chiefs in the northern and western parts of Scotland continued to support Gaelic bards who remained a central feature of court life there. The semi-independent Lordship of the Isles in the Hebrides and western coastal mainland remained thoroughly Gaelic since the language's recovery there in the 12th century, providing a political foundation for cultural prestige down to the end of the 15th century.[23]

By the mid-14th century what eventually came to be called Scots (at that time termed Inglis) emerged as the official language of government and law.[24] Scotland's emergent nationalism in the era following the conclusion of the Wars of Scottish Independence was organized using Scots as well. For example, the nation's great patriotic literature including John Barbour's The Brus (1375) and Blind Harry's The Wallace (before 1488) was written in Scots, not Gaelic. By the end of the 15th century, English/Scots speakers referred to Gaelic instead as 'Yrisch' or 'Erse', i.e. Irish and their own language as 'Scottis'.[22]

Modern era

Scottish Gaelic has a rich oral (beul-aithris) and written tradition, having been the language of the bardic culture of the Highland clans for many years. The language preserves knowledge of and adherence to pre-feudal laws and customs, the salience of which was evident in the complaints and claims of the Highland Land League in the late 19th century, which elected MPs to the Parliament of the United Kingdom.[25] However, the language suffered under centralization efforts by the Scottish and later British states, especially after the Battle of Culloden in 1746, during the Highland Clearances, and by the exclusion of Scottish Gaelic from the educational system.

The first well-known translation of the Bible into Scottish Gaelic was made in 1767 when Dr James Stuart of Killin and Dugald Buchanan of Rannoch produced a translation of the New Testament. Very few European languages have made the transition to a modern literary language without an early modern translation of the Bible; the lack of a well-known translation may have contributed to the decline of Scottish Gaelic.[26]

In the 21st century, Scottish Gaelic literature has seen development within the area of prose fiction publication, as well as challenges due to the continuing decline of the language.[27]

Defunct dialects

Two interpretations of the linguistic divide in the middle ages. Left: the divide in 1400 after Loch, 1932; Right: the divide in 1500 after Nicholson, 1974. (both reproduced from Withers, 1984)
  Gaelic
  Scots
  Norn

All surviving dialects are Highland and/or Hebridean dialects. Dialects of Lowland Gaelic have become defunct since the demise of Galwegian Gaelic, originally spoken in Galloway, which seems to have been the last Lowland dialect and which survived into the Modern Period. By the 18th century Lowland Gaelic had been largely replaced by Lowland Scots across much of Lowland Scotland. Gaelic in the Eastern and Southern Scottish Highlands, although alive in the mid-twentieth century, is now largely defunct. What is known as Scottish Gaelic is essentially the Gaelic spoken in the Outer Hebrides and on Skye. Generally speaking, the Gaelic spoken across the Western Isles is similar enough to be classed as one major dialect group, although there is still regional variation.

Dialects on both sides of the Straits of Moyle (the North Channel) linking Scottish Gaelic with Irish are now extinct, though native speakers were still to be found on the Mull of Kintyre, Rathlin and in North East Ireland as late as the mid-20th century. Records of their speech show that Irish and Scottish Gaelic existed in a dialect chain with no clear language boundary.

A certain number of features of Highland dialects moribund in Scotland have been preserved in the Nova Scotia Gaelic community. Those of particular note are the pronunciation of the broad or velarised l (l̪ˠ) as [w], as in the Lochaber dialect.[28]

Status

The Endangered Languages Project lists Gaelic's status as "threatened," with "20,000 to 30,000 active users." [29] UNESCO classifies Gaelic as "definitely endangered."

Number of speakers

Gaelic speakers in Scotland (1755–2011)
Year Scottish population Monolingual Gaelic speakers Gaelic and English bilinguals Total Gaelic language group
1755 1,265,380 Unknown Unknown 289,798 22.9%
1800 1,608,420 Unknown Unknown 297,823 18.5%
1881 3,735,573 Unknown Unknown 231,594 6.1%
1891 4,025,647 43,738 1.1% 210,677 5.2% 254,415 6.3%
1901 4,472,103 28,106 0.6% 202,700 4.5% 230,806 5.1%
1911 4,760,904 8,400 0.2% 183,998 3.9% 192,398 4.2%
1921 4,573,471 9,829 0.2% 148,950 3.3% 158,779 3.5%
1931 4,588,909 6,716 0.2% 129,419 2.8% 136,135 3.0%
1951 5,096,415 2,178 0.1% 93,269 1.8% 95,447 1.9%
1961 5,179,344 974 <0.1% 80,004 1.5% 80,978 1.5%
1971 5,228,965 477 <0.1% 88,415 1.7% 88,892 1.7%
1981 5,035,315 — — 82,620 1.6% 82,620 1.6%
1991 5,083,000 — — 65,978 1.4% 65,978 1.4%
2001 5,062,011 — — 58,652 1.2% 58,652 1.2%
2011 5,295,403 — — 57,602 1.1% 57,602 1.1%

The 1755–2001 figures are census data quoted by MacAulay.[30] The 2011 Gaelic speakers figures come from table KS206SC of the 2011 Census. The 2011 total population figure comes from table KS101SC. Note that the numbers of Gaelic speakers relate to the numbers aged 3 and over, and the percentages are calculated using those and the number of the total population aged 3 and over.

Distribution in Scotland

Geographic Distribution of Gaelic speakers in Scotland (2011)

The 2011 UK Census showed a total of 57,375 Gaelic speakers in Scotland (1.1% of population over three years old), of whom only 32,400 could also read and write, due to the lack of Gaelic medium education in Scotland.[31] Compared to the 2001 Census, there has been a diminution of approximately 1,300 people.[32] This is the smallest drop between censuses since the Gaelic language question was first asked in 1881. The Scottish Government's language minister and Bord na Gaidhlig took this as evidence that Gaelic's long decline has slowed.[33]

The main stronghold of the language continues to be the Outer Hebrides (Na h-Eileanan Siar), where the overall proportion of speakers is 52.2%. Important pockets of the language also exist in the Highlands (5.4%) and in Argyll and Bute (4.0%), and Inverness, where 4.9% speak the language. The locality with the largest absolute number is Glasgow with 5,878 such persons, who make up over 10% of all of Scotland's Gaelic speakers.

Gaelic continues to decline in its traditional heartland. Between 2001 and 2011, the absolute number of Gaelic speakers fell sharply in the Western Isles (−1,745), Argyll & Bute (−694), and Highland (−634). The drop in Stornoway, the largest parish in the Western Isles by population, was especially acute, from 57.5% of the population in 1991 to 43.4% in 2011.[34] The only parish outside the Western Isles over 40% Gaelic-speaking is Kilmuir in Northern Skye at 46%. The islands in the Inner Hebrides with significant percentages of Gaelic speakers are Tiree (38.3%), Raasay (30.4%), Skye (29.4%), Lismore (26.9%), Colonsay (20.2%), and Islay (19.0%).

As a result of continued decline in the traditional Gaelic heartlands, today no civil parish in Scotland has a proportion of Gaelic speakers greater than 65% (the highest value is in Barvas, Lewis, with 64.1%). In addition, no civil parish on mainland Scotland has a proportion of Gaelic speakers greater than 20% (the highest value is in Ardnamurchan, Highland, with 19.3%). Out of a total of 871 civil parishes in Scotland, the proportion of Gaelic speakers exceeds 50% in 7 parishes, exceeds 25% in 14 parishes, and exceeds 10% in 35 parishes. Decline in traditional areas has recently been balanced by growth in the Scottish Lowlands. Between the 2001 and 2011 censuses, the number of Gaelic speakers rose in nineteen of the country's 32 council areas. The largest absolute gains were in Aberdeenshire (+526), North Lanarkshire (+305), Aberdeen City (+216), and East Ayrshire (+208). The largest relative gains were in Aberdeenshire (+0.19%), East Ayrshire (+0.18%), Moray (+0.16%), and Orkney (+0.13%).

As with other Celtic languages, monolingualism is non-existent except among native-speaking children under school age in traditional Gàidhealtachd areas. In 2014, the census of pupils in Scotland showed 497 pupils in publicly funded schools had Gaelic as the main language at home, a drop of 18% from 606 students in 2010. During the same period, Gaelic medium education in Scotland has grown, with 3,583 pupils being educated in a Gaelic-immersion environment in 2014, up from 2,638 pupils in 2009.[35] However, even among pupils enrolled in Gaelic medium schools, 81% of primary students and 74% of secondary students report using English more often than Gaelic when speaking with their mothers at home. [36]

Area Gaelic nameGaelic speakers
%Number
Outer Hebrides Na h-Eileanan Siar 52% 14,248
Highland A' Ghàidhealtachd 5% 6,927
Argyll and Bute Earra-Ghàidheal agus Bòd 4% 3.500
Glasgow Glaschu 1% 5,726
Edinburgh Dùn Èideann 0.7% 3,220

Grammar

Scottish Gaelic is an Indo-European language with an inflecting morphology, a verb–subject–object word order and two grammatical genders.

Noun inflection

Gaelic nouns inflect for four cases (nominative/accusative, vocative, genitive and dative) and three numbers (singular, dual and plural).

They are also normally classed as either masculine or feminine. A small number of words that used to belong to the neuter class show some degree of gender confusion. For example, in some dialects am muir "the sea" behaves as a masculine noun in the nominative case, but as a feminine noun in the genitive (na mara).

Nouns are marked for case in a number of ways, most commonly involving various combinations of lenition, palatalisation and suffixation.

Verb inflection

There are 12 irregular verbs.[37] Most other verbs follow a fully predictable paradigm, although polysyllabic verbs ending in laterals can deviate from this paradigm as they show syncopation.

There are:

Word order

Word order is strictly verb–subject–object, including questions, negative questions and negatives. Only a restricted set of preverb particles may occur before the verb.

Lexicon

The majority of the vocabulary of Scottish Gaelic is native Celtic. There are a large number of borrowings from Latin, (muinntir, Didòmhnaich from (dies) dominica), ancient Greek, especially in the religious domain (eaglais, Bìoball from Ekklesia and Biblia), Norse (eilean from eyland, sgeir from sker), Hebrew (Sàbaid from shabbáth, Aba), French (seòmar from chambre) and Scots (aidh, bramar).

There are also many Brythonic influences on Scottish Gaelic. Scottish Gaelic contains a number of apparently P-Celtic loanwords, but it is not always possible to disentangle P and Q Celtic words. However some common words such as monadh = Welsh mynydd Cumbric *monidh are clearly of P-Celtic origin.

In common with other Indo-European languages, the neologisms which are coined for modern concepts are typically based on Greek or Latin, although often coming through English; television, for instance, becomes telebhisean and computer becomes coimpiùtar. Native speakers frequently use an English word even if there is a Gaelic equivalent, applying the rules of Gaelic grammar. With verbs, for instance, they will simply add the verbal suffix (-eadh, or, in Lewis, -igeadh, as in, "Tha mi a' watcheadh (Lewis, "watchigeadh") an telly" (I am watching the television), instead of "Tha mi a' coimhead air an telebhisean". This phenomenon was described over 170 years ago, by the minister who compiled the account covering the parish of Stornoway in the New Statistical Account of Scotland, and examples can be found dating to the eighteenth century.[39] However, as Gaelic medium education grows in popularity, a newer generation of literate Gaels is becoming more familiar with modern Gaelic vocabulary.

Loanwords into other languages

Scottish Gaelic has also influenced the Scots language and English, particularly Scottish Standard English. Loanwords include: whisky, slogan, brogue, jilt, clan, trousers, gob, as well as familiar elements of Scottish geography like ben (beinn), glen (gleann) and loch. Irish has also influenced Lowland Scots and English in Scotland, but it is not always easy to distinguish its influence from that of Scottish Gaelic.[40]

Phonology

Most varieties of Gaelic have either 8 or 9 vowel phonemes (/i e ɛ a ɔ o u ɤ ɯ/), which can be either long or short. There are also two reduced vowels ([ə ɪ]) which only occur short. Although some vowels are strongly nasal, instances of distinctive nasality are rare. There are about nine diphthongs and a few triphthongs.

Most consonants have both palatal and non-palatal counterparts, including a very rich system of liquids, nasals and trills (i.e. 3 contrasting l sounds, 3 contrasting n sounds and 3 contrasting r sounds). The historically voiced stops [b d̪ ɡ] have lost their voicing, so the phonemic contrast today is between unaspirated [p t̪ k] and aspirated [pʰ t̪ʰ kʰ]. In many dialects, these stops may however gain voicing through secondary articulation through a preceding nasal, for examples doras [t̪ɔɾəs̪] "door" but an doras "the door" as [ən̪ˠ d̪ɔɾəs̪] or [ə n̪ˠɔɾəs̪].

In some fixed phrases, these changes are shown permanently, as the link with the base words has been lost, as in an-dràsta "now", from an tràth-sa "this time/period".

In medial and final position, the aspirated stops are preaspirated rather than aspirated.

Writing system

Public signage in Gaelic is becoming increasingly common throughout the Scottish Highlands. This sign is located in the bilingual port community of Mallaig.

Alphabet

The modern Scottish Gaelic alphabet has 18 letters:

A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, L, M, N, O, P, R, S, T, U.

The letter h, now mostly used to indicate lenition (or aspiration) of a consonant, was in general not used in the oldest orthography, as lenition was instead indicated with a dot over the lenited consonant. The letters of the alphabet were traditionally named after trees, but this custom has fallen out of use.

Long vowels are marked with a grave accent (à, è, ì, ò, ù), indicated through digraphs (e.g. ao is [ɯː]) or conditioned by certain consonant environments (e.g. a u preceding a non-intervocalic nn is [uː]). Traditional spelling systems also use the acute accent on the letters á, é and ó to denote a change in vowel quality rather than length, but the reformed spellings have replaced these with the grave.[41]

Certain 18th century sources sources used only an acute accent along the lines of Irish, such as in the writings of Alasdair mac Mhaighstir Alasdair (1741–51) and the earliest editions (1768–90) of Duncan Ban MacIntyre.[42]

Orthography

The 1767 New Testament set the standard for Scottish Gaelic. The 1981 Scottish Examination Board recommendations for Scottish Gaelic, the Gaelic Orthographic Conventions, were adopted by most publishers and agencies, although they remain controversial among some academics, most notably Ronald Black.[43]

The quality of consonants (palatalised or non-palatalised) is indicated in writing by the vowels surrounding them. So-called "slender" consonants are palatalised while "broad" consonants are neutral or velarised. The vowels e and i are classified as slender, and a, o, and u as broad. The spelling rule known as caol ri caol agus leathann ri leathann ("slender to slender and broad to broad") requires that a word-medial consonant or consonant group followed by a written i or e be also preceded by an i or e; and similarly if followed by a, o or u be also preceded by an a, o, or u.

This rule sometimes leads to the insertion of an orthographic vowel that does not influence the pronunciation of the vowel. For example, plurals in Gaelic are often formed with the suffix -an [ən], for example, bròg [prɔːk] (shoe) / brògan [prɔːkən] (shoes). But because of the spelling rule, the suffix is spelled -ean (but pronounced the same, [ən]) after a slender consonant, as in muinntir [mɯi̯ɲtʲɪrʲ] ((a) people) / muinntirean [mɯi̯ɲtʲɪrʲən] (peoples) where the written e is purely a graphic vowel inserted to conform with the spelling rule because an i precedes the r.

Bilingual English/Gaelic sign at Queen Street Station in Glasgow.

Unstressed vowels omitted in speech can be omitted in informal writing. For example:

Tha mi an dòchas. ("I hope.") > Tha mi 'n dòchas.

Gaelic orthographic rules are mostly regular; however, English sound-to-letter correspondences cannot be applied to written Gaelic.

Scots English orthographic rules have also been used at various times in Gaelic writing. Notable examples of Gaelic verse composed in this manner are the Book of the Dean of Lismore and the Fernaig manuscript.

Official recognition

Scotland

Scottish Parliament

An electronic noticeboard displaying
Fàilte gu stèisean Dùn Èideann
("Welcome to Edinburgh station")

Gaelic has long suffered from its lack of use in educational and administrative contexts and was long suppressed.[44]

The UK government has ratified the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages in respect of Gaelic. Along with Irish and Welsh, Gaelic is designated under Part III of the Charter, which requires the UK Government to take a range of concrete measures in the fields of education, justice, public administration, broadcasting and culture. It has not received the same degree of official recognition from the UK Government as Welsh. With the advent of devolution, however, Scottish matters have begun to receive greater attention, and it achieved a degree of official recognition when the Gaelic Language (Scotland) Act was enacted by the Scottish Parliament on 21 April 2005.

The key provisions of the Act are:[45]

Following a consultation period, in which the government received many submissions, the majority of which asked that the bill be strengthened, a revised bill was published; the main alteration was that the guidance of the Bòrd is now statutory (rather than advisory). In the committee stages in the Scottish Parliament, there was much debate over whether Gaelic should be given 'equal validity' with English. Due to executive concerns about resourcing implications if this wording was used, the Education Committee settled on the concept of 'equal respect'. It is not clear what the legal force of this wording is.

The Act was passed by the Scottish Parliament unanimously, with support from all sectors of the Scottish political spectrum, on 21 April 2005. Under the provisions of the Act, it will ultimately fall to BnG to secure the status of the Gaelic language as an official language of Scotland.

Some commentators, such as Éamonn Ó Gribín (2006) argue that the Gaelic Act falls so far short of the status accorded to Welsh that one would be foolish or naïve to believe that any substantial change will occur in the fortunes of the language as a result of Bòrd na Gàidhlig's efforts.[46]

On 10 December 2008, to celebrate the 60th anniversary of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the Scottish Human Rights Commission had the UDHR translated into Gaelic for the first time.[47]

However, given there are no longer any monolingual Gaelic speakers,[48] following an appeal in the court case of Taylor v Haughney (1982), involving the status of Gaelic in judicial proceedings, the High Court ruled against a general right to use Gaelic in court proceedings.[49]

Qualifications in the language

The Scottish Qualifications Authority offer two streams of Gaelic examination across all levels of the syllabus: Gaelic for learners (equivalent to the modern foreign languages syllabus) and Gaelic for native speakers (equivalent to the English syllabus).[50][51]

An Comunn Gàidhealach performs assessment of spoken Gaelic, resulting in the issue of a Bronze Card, Silver Card or Gold Card. Syllabus details are available on An Comunn's website. These are not widely recognised as qualifications, but are required for those taking part in certain competitions at the annual mods.[52]

European Union

In October 2009, a new agreement was made which allows Scottish Gaelic to be used formally between Scottish Government ministers and European Union officials. The deal was signed by Britain's representative to the EU, Sir Kim Darroch, and the Scottish government. This does not give Scottish Gaelic official status in the EU, but gives it the right to be a means of formal communications in the EU's institutions. The Scottish government will have to pay for the translation from Gaelic to other European languages. The deal was received positively in Scotland; Secretary of State for Scotland Jim Murphy said the move was a strong sign of the UK government's support for Gaelic. He said that "Allowing Gaelic speakers to communicate with European institutions in their mother tongue is a progressive step forward and one which should be welcomed". Culture Minister Mike Russell said that "this is a significant step forward for the recognition of Gaelic both at home and abroad and I look forward to addressing the council in Gaelic very soon. Seeing Gaelic spoken in such a forum raises the profile of the language as we drive forward our commitment to creating a new generation of Gaelic speakers in Scotland."[53]

Bilingual signs in English and Gaelic are now part of the architecture in the Scottish Parliament building completed in 2004.

The Scottish Gaelic used in Machine-readable British passports differs from Irish passports in places. "Passport" is rendered Cead-siubhail (in Irish, Pas); "The European Union", Aonadh Eòrpach (in Irish, An tAontas Eorpach), while "Northern Ireland" is Èirinn a Tuath in Gaelic (the Irish equivalent is Tuaisceart Éireann).

Media

The BBC operates a Gaelic-language radio station Radio nan Gàidheal as well as a television channel, BBC Alba. Launched on 19 September 2008, BBC Alba is widely available in the UK (on Freeview, Freesat, Sky and Virgin Media). It also broadcasts across Europe on the Astra 2 satellites.[54] The channel is being operated in partnership between BBC Scotland and MG Alba – an organisation funded by the Scottish Government, which works to promote the Gaelic language in broadcasting.[55] The ITV franchise in central Scotland, STV Central, produces a number of Scottish Gaelic programmes for both BBC Alba and its own main channel.[55]

Until BBC Alba was broadcast on Freeview, viewers were able to receive the channel TeleG, which broadcast for an hour every evening. Upon BBC Alba's launch on Freeview, it took the channel number than was previously assigned to TeleG.

There are also television programmes in the language on other BBC channels and on the independent commercial channels, usually subtitled in English. The ITV franchise in the north of Scotland, STV North (formerly Grampian Television) produces some non-news programming in Scottish Gaelic.

Signage

Bilingual road sign

Bilingual road signs, street names, business and advertisement signage (in both Gaelic and English) are gradually being introduced throughout Gaelic-speaking regions in the Highlands and Islands, including Argyll. In many cases, this has simply meant re-adopting the traditional spelling of a name (such as Ràtagan or Loch Ailleart rather than the anglicised forms Ratagan or Lochailort respectively).

Bilingual railway station signs are now more frequent than they used to be. Practically all the stations in the Highland area use both English and Gaelic, and the spread of bilingual station signs is becoming ever more frequent in the Lowlands of Scotland, including areas where Gaelic has not been spoken for a long time.

This has been welcomed by many supporters of the language as a means of raising its profile as well as securing its future as a 'living language' (i.e. allowing people to use it to navigate from A to B in place of English) and creating a sense of place. However, in some places, such as Caithness, the Highland Council's intention to introduce bilingual signage has incited controversy.[56]

The Ordnance Survey has acted in recent years to correct many of the mistakes that appear on maps. They announced in 2004 that they intended to correct them and set up a committee to determine the correct forms of Gaelic place names for their maps. Ainmean-Àite na h-Alba ("Place names in Scotland") is the national advisory partnership for Gaelic place names in Scotland.[57]

Canada

Antigonish, Nova Scotia

In the nineteenth century, Canadian Gaelic was the third-most widely spoken language in Canada[58] and Gaelic-speaking immigrant communities could be found throughout the country. Gaelic poets in Canada produced a significant literary tradition.[59] The number of Gaelic-speaking individuals and communities declined sharply, however, after the First World War.[60]

Nova Scotia is home to 1,275 Gaelic speakers as of 2011,[61] of whom 300 claim to have Gaelic as their "mother tongue".[62] The Nova Scotia government maintains an Office of Gaelic Affairs which works to promote the Gaelic language, culture, and tourism. As in Scotland, areas of North-Eastern Nova Scotia and Cape Breton have bilingual street signs. Nova Scotia also has Comhairle na Gàidhlig (The Gaelic Council of Nova Scotia), a non-profit society dedicated to the maintenance and promotion of the Gaelic language and culture in Maritime Canada.

Maxville Public School in Maxville, Glengarry, Ontario, Canada offers Scottish Gaelic lessons weekly. In Prince Edward Island, the Colonel Gray High School now offers both an introductory and an advanced course in Gaelic; both language and history are taught in these classes. This is the first recorded time that Gaelic has ever been taught as an official course on Prince Edward Island.

The province of British Columbia is host to the Comunn Gàidhlig Bhancoubhair (The Gaelic Society of Vancouver), the Vancouver Gaelic Choir, the Victoria Gaelic Choir, as well as the annual Gaelic festival Mòd Vancouver. The city of Vancouver's Scottish Cultural Centre also holds seasonal Scottish Gaelic evening classes.

Education

Scotland

Year Number of
students in
Gaelic medium
education 		Percentage
of all
students
in Scotland
2005 2,480 0.35%
2006 2,535 0.36%[63]
2007 2,601 0.38%
2008 2,766 0.40%[64]
2009 2,638 0.39%[65]
2010 2,647 0.39%[66]
2011 2,929 0.44%[67]
2012 2,871 0.43%[68]
2013 2,953 0.44%[69]
2014 3,583 0.53%[70]
2015 3,660 0.54%[71]
2016 3,892 0.57%[72]
Sgoil Ghàidhlig Ghlaschu (Glasgow Gaelic School)

The Education (Scotland) Act 1872, which completely ignored Gaelic, and led to generations of Gaels being forbidden to speak their native language in the classroom, is now recognised as having dealt a major blow to the language. People still living can recall being beaten for speaking Gaelic in school.[73] Even later, when these attitudes had changed, little provision was made for Gaelic medium education in Scottish schools. As late as 1958, even in Highland schools, only 20% of primary students were taught Gaelic as a subject, and only 5% were taught other subjects through the Gaelic language. [74]

Gaelic-medium playgroups for young children began to appear in Scotland during the late 1970s and early 1980s. Parent enthusiasm may have been a factor in the "establishment of the first Gaelic medium primary school units in Glasgow and Inverness in 1985." [75]

The first modern solely Gaelic-medium secondary school, Sgoil Ghàidhlig Ghlaschu ("Glasgow Gaelic School"), was opened at Woodside in Glasgow in 2006 (61 partially Gaelic-medium primary schools and approximately a dozen Gaelic-medium secondary schools also exist). According to Bòrd na Gàidhlig, a total of 2,092 primary pupils were enrolled in Gaelic-medium primary education in 2008–09, as opposed to 24 in 1985.[76]

The Columba Initiative, also known as colmcille (formerly Iomairt Cholm Cille), is a body that seeks to promote links between speakers of Scottish Gaelic and Irish.

Canada

In May 2004, the provincial government announced the funding of an initiative to support the language and its culture within the province. Several public schools in Northeastern Nova Scotia and Cape Breton offer Gaelic classes as part of the high-school curriculum.[77]

Maxville Public School in Maxville, Glengarry, Ontario, Canada offers Scottish Gaelic lessons weekly. In Prince Edward Island, Canada, the Colonel Gray High School is now offering two courses in Gaelic, an introductory and an advanced course; both language and history are taught in these classes. This is the first recorded time that Gaelic has ever been taught as an official course on Prince Edward Island.

Higher and further education

A number of Scottish and some Irish universities offer full-time degrees including a Gaelic language element, usually graduating as Celtic Studies.

St. Francis Xavier University, the Gaelic College of Celtic Arts and Crafts and Cape Breton University (formerly University College Of Cape Breton) in Nova Scotia, Canada also offer a Celtic Studies degrees and/or Gaelic language programs.

In Russia the Moscow State University offers Gaelic language, history and culture courses.

University of the Highlands and Islands

The University of the Highlands and Islands offers a range of Gaelic courses at Cert HE, Dip HE, BA (ordinary), BA (Hons) and MA, and offers opportunities for postgraduate research through the medium of Gaelic. The majority of these courses are available as residential courses at Sabhal Mòr Ostaig. A number of other colleges offer the one-year certificate course, which is also available on-line (pending accreditation).

Lews Castle College's Benbecula campus offers an independent 1-year course in Gaelic and Traditional Music (FE, SQF level 5/6).

Church

A sign indicating services in Gaelic and English at a Free Church of Scotland congregation in the community of Ness, Isle of Lewis.

In the Western Isles, the isles of Lewis, Harris and North Uist have a Presbyterian majority (largely Church of Scotland – Eaglais na h-Alba in Gaelic, Free Church of Scotland and Free Presbyterian Church of Scotland.) The isles of South Uist and Barra have a Catholic majority. All these churches have Gaelic-speaking congregations throughout the Western Isles. Notable city congregations with regular services in Gaelic are St Columba's Church, Glasgow and Greyfriars Tolbooth & Highland Kirk, Edinburgh. Leabhar Sheirbheisean – a shorter Gaelic version of the English-language Book of Common Order – was published in 1996 by the Church of Scotland.

The widespread use of English in worship has often been suggested as one of the historic reasons for the decline of Gaelic. The Church of Scotland is supportive today, but has a shortage of Gaelic-speaking ministers. The Free Church also recently announced plans to abolish Gaelic-language communion services, citing both a lack of ministers and a desire to have their congregations united at communion time.[78]

Sport

The most notable use of the language in sport is that of the Camanachd Association, the shinty society, who have a bilingual logo.

In the mid-1990s, the Celtic League started a campaign to have the word "Alba" on the Scottish football and rugby union tops. Since 2005, the SFA have supported the use of Scottish Gaelic on their teams' strip in recognition of the language's revival in Scotland.[79] However, the SRU is still being lobbied to have "Alba" on the national rugby strip.[80][81]

Some sports coverage, albeit at a small level, takes place in Scottish Gaelic broadcasting.

Personal names

Gaelic has its own version of European-wide names which also have English forms, for example: Iain (John), Alasdair (Alexander), Uilleam (William), Catrìona (Catherine), Raibeart (Robert), Cairistìona (Christina), Anna (Ann), Màiri (Mary), Seumas (James), Pàdraig (Patrick) and Tòmas (Thomas). Not all traditional Gaelic names have direct equivalents in English: Oighrig, which is normally rendered as Euphemia (Effie) or Henrietta (Etta) (formerly also as Henny or even as Harriet), or, Diorbhal, which is "matched" with Dorothy, simply on the basis of a certain similarity in spelling. Many of these traditional Gaelic-only names are now regarded as old-fashioned, and hence are rarely or never used.

Some names have come into Gaelic from Old Norse; for example, Somhairle ( < Somarliðr), Tormod (< Þórmóðr), Raghnall or Raonull (< Rögnvaldr), Torcuil (< Þórkell, Þórketill), Ìomhar (Ívarr). These are conventionally rendered in English as Sorley (or, historically, Somerled), Norman, Ronald or Ranald, Torquil and Iver (or Evander).

Some Scottish names are Anglicized forms of Gaelic names: Aonghas → (Angus), Dòmhnall→ (Donald), for instance. Hamish, and the recently established Mhairi (pronounced [vaːri]) come from the Gaelic for, respectively, James, and Mary, but derive from the form of the names as they appear in the vocative case: Seumas (James) (nom.) → Sheumais (voc.), and, Màiri (Mary) (nom.) → Mhàiri (voc.).

Surnames

The most common class of Gaelic surnames are those beginning with mac (Gaelic for "son"), such as MacGillEathain/MacIllEathain[82][41] (MacLean). The female form is nic (Gaelic for "daughter"), so Catherine MacPhee is properly called in Gaelic, Catrìona Nic a' Phì[83] (strictly, "nic" is a contraction of the Gaelic phrase nighean mhic, meaning "daughter of the son", thus NicDhòmhnaill[41] really means "daughter of MacDonald" rather than "daughter of Donald"). The "of" part actually comes from the genitive form of the patronymic that follows the prefix; in the case of MacDhòmhnaill, Dhòmhnaill ("of Donald") is the genitive form of Dòmhnall ("Donald").[84]

However, East Sutherland Gaelic uses mac for both male and female surnames.[85]

Several colours give rise to common Scottish surnames: bàn (Bain – white), ruadh (Roy – red), dubh (Dow, Duff – black), donn (Dunn – brown), buidhe (Bowie – yellow).

Common words and phrases with Irish and Manx equivalents

Scottish Gaelic Irish Manx Gaelic English
sinn [ʃiːɲ] muid/sinn [mˠidʲ/ʃiɲ] shin [ʃin] we
aon [ɯːn] aon [eːn] nane [neːn] one
mòr [moːɾ] mór [mˠoːɾ]/[mˠuəɾ] mooar [muːɾ] big
iasg [iəs̪k] iasc [iəsk] eeast [jiːs] fish
cù [kʰuː]
(madadh [mat̪əɣ])		 madra [mˠadɾə]
gadhar [ gˠəiɾ]
(cú [kʰuː])		 moddey [mɔːdə]
(coo [kʰuː])		 dog
grian [kɾʲiən] grian [gˠɾʲiən] grian [gridn] sun
craobh [kʰɾɯːv]
(crann [kʰɾaun̪ˠ])		 crann [kʰɾa(u)nˠ] billey [biʎə] tree
cadal [kʰat̪əl̪ˠ] codail [kʰodəlʲ] cadley [kʲadlə] sleep (verb)
ceann [kʲaun̪ˠ] ceann [kʲaunˠ]/[kʲa:nˠ] kione [kʲo:n̪ˠ] head
cha do dh'òl thu [xa t̪ə ɣɔːl̪ˠ u] níor ól tú [n̠ʲi:əɾ o:l̪ˠ t̪ˠu:] cha diu oo [xa deu u] you did not drink
bha mi a' faicinn [va mi fɛçkʲɪɲ] bhí mé ag feiceáil [vʲi: mʲe: əg fʲɛca:il̠ʲ]
(bhíos ag feiscint [vʲi:ɔsˠ əg fʲɛʃcin̠ʲt])		 va mee fakin [vɛ mə faːɣin] I was seeing
slàinte [s̪l̪ˠaːɲtʲə] sláinte slaynt health, cheers! (toast)

Note: Items in brackets denote archaic or dialectal forms

See also

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 2011 Census of Scotland, Table QS211SC. Viewed 30 May 2014.
  2. ↑ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin; Bank, Sebastian, eds. (2016). "Scottish Gaelic". Glottolog 2.7. Jena: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.
  3. 1 2 Withers, Charles W. J. (1984). Gaelic in Scotland, 1698–1981. Edinburgh: John Donald Publishers Ltd. pp. 16–18. ISBN 0859760979.
  4. ↑ Scotland's Census Results Online (SCROL), Table UV12. Viewed 30 May 2014.
  5. ↑ "Census shows decline in Gaelic speakers 'slowed'". BBC News. 26 September 2013. Retrieved 17 April 2017.
  6. ↑ List of declarations made with respect to treaty No. 148 from the Council of Europe.
  7. ↑ "Official text of the Gaelic Language (Scotland) Act 2005". Statutelaw.gov.uk. 2011-05-26. Retrieved 2014-03-27.
  8. ↑ Statistics Canada, 2011 NHS Survey
  9. ↑ "Gaelic: definition of Gaelic in Oxford dictionary (British & World English)". Oxforddictionaries.com. 2013-11-06. Retrieved 2013-11-13.
  10. ↑ "Gaelic - definition of Gaelic in English | Oxford Dictionaries". Oxford Dictionaries.
  11. ↑ Companion to the Oxford English Dictionary, Tom McArthur, Oxford University Press, 1994
  12. ↑ Jones, Charles (1997). The Edinburgh history of the Scots language. Edinburgh University Press. p. 551. ISBN 978-0-7486-0754-9.
  13. ↑ Nora Kershaw Chadwick, Myles Dyllon (1972). The Celtic Realms. Weidenfeld & Nicolson. p. 66. ISBN 978-0-7607-4284-6.
  14. ↑ Clarkson, pp. 238–244
  15. ↑ Broun, "Dunkeld", Broun, "National Identity", Forsyth, "Scotland to 1100", pp. 28–32, Woolf, "Constantine II"; cf. Bannerman, "Scottish Takeover", passim, representing the "traditional" view.
  16. ↑ http://www.euppublishing.com/doi/abs/10.3366/shr.2013.0178
  17. ↑ Clarkson, Tim (2011). The Makers of Scotland: Picts, Romans, Gaels, and Vikings. Edinburgh: Birlinn Ltd. p. 276. ISBN 978-1906566296.
  18. ↑ Colm Ó Baoill, "The Scots–Gaelic interface," in Charles Jones, ed., The Edinburgh History of the Scots Language. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1997, p. 554
  19. ↑ Withers, p. 19
  20. ↑ Magnusson, p. 68
  21. ↑ MacArthur, Margaret (1874). History of Scotland. New York: Henry Holt and Company. p. 33.
  22. 1 2 Withers, pp. 19–23
  23. ↑ Ó Baoill, p. 553–6
  24. ↑ Withers, Charles W. J. (1988). "The Geographical History of Gaelic in Scotland". In Colin H. Williams. Language in Geographic Context. p. 139.
  25. ↑ Hunter, James (1976). The Making of the Crofting Community. pp. 178–9.
  26. ↑ Mackenzie, Donald W. (1990–92). "The Worthy Translator: How the Scottish Gaels got the Scriptures in their own Tongue". Transactions of the Gaelic Society of Inverness. 57: 168–202.
  27. ↑ Storey, John (2011) "Contemporary Gaelic fiction: development, challenge and opportunity" Lainnir a’ Bhùirn' – The Gleaming Water: Essays on Modern Gaelic Literature, edited by Emma Dymock & Wilson McLeod, Dunedin Academic Press.
  28. ↑ Kennedy, Michael (2002). Gaelic in Nova Scotia: An Economic, Cultural and Social Impact Study (PDF). Province of Nova Scotia. p. 131. Retrieved 5 January 2016.
  29. ↑ "Endangered Languages Project - Scottish Gaelic". Endangered Languages Project. Retrieved 14 June 2017.
  30. ↑ MacAulay, Donald (1992). The Celtic Languages. Cambridge University Press. p. 141. ISBN 0521231272. – quoting census data. No data recorded for monolingual Gaelic speakers from 1981
  31. ↑ 2011 Census of Scotland, Table QS211SC. Viewed 23 June 2014.
  32. ↑ Scotland's Census Results Online (SCROL), Table UV12. Viewed 23 June 2014.
  33. ↑ "Census shows decline in Gaelic speakers 'slowed'". BBC News Online. 26 September 2013. Retrieved 23 June 2014.
  34. ↑ "Census shows Gaelic declining in its heartlands". BBC News Online. 15 November 2013. Retrieved 23 June 2014.
  35. ↑ "Pupil Census Supplementary Data". The Scottish Government. Retrieved 3 March 2015.
  36. ↑ O'Hanlon, Fiona (2012). Lost in transition? Celtic language revitalization in Scotland and Wales: the primary to secondary school stage (Thesis). The University of Edinburgh.
  37. ↑ Cox, Richard Brìgh nam Facal (1991) Roinn nan Cànan Ceilteach ISBN 0-903204-21-5
  38. ↑ "Gaelic Orthographic Conventions" (PDF). sqa.org. Bòrd na Gàidhlig. October 2009. Retrieved 19 January 2017.
  39. ↑ Alasdair mac Mhaighstir Alasdair. "Smeòrach Chlann Raghnaill". www.moidart.org.uk. Archaeology Archive Moidart History. Retrieved 24 April 2017.
  40. ↑ Macbain, Alexander (1896). An Etymological Dictionary of the Gaelic Language (Digitized facsimile ed.). BiblioBazaar. ISBN 978-1-116-77321-7.
  41. 1 2 3 "Gaelic Orthographic Conventions" (PDF). sqa.org. Bòrd na Gàidhlig. October 2009. Retrieved 19 January 2017.
  42. ↑ O'Rahilly, T F, Irish Dialects Past and Present. Brown and Nolan 1932, ISBN 0-901282-55-3, p. 19
  43. ↑ The Board of Celtic Studies Scotland (1998) Computer-Assisted Learning for Gaelic: Towards a Common Teaching Core. The orthographic conventions were revised by the Scottish Qualifications Authority (SQA) in 2005: "Gaelic Orthographic Conventions 2005" (PDF). SQA publication BB1532. Retrieved 2007-03-24.
  44. ↑ See Kenneth MacKinnon (1991) Gaelic: A Past and Future Prospect. Edinburgh: The Saltire Society.
  45. ↑ Gaelic Language (Scotland) Act 2005.
  46. ↑ Williams, Colin H., Legislative Devolution and Language Regulation in the United Kingdom, Cardiff University
  47. ↑ "Latest News – SHRC". Scottish Human Rights Commission. 2008-10-12. Archived from the original on 2011-04-08. Retrieved 2013-11-13.
  48. ↑ "UK Ratification of the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. Working Paper 10 – R.Dunbar, 2003" (PDF). Retrieved 2014-03-27.
  49. ↑ Archived 1 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine.
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  51. ↑ "Gaelic (learners)". www.sqa.org.uk. SQA. Retrieved 24 April 2017. |first1= missing |last1= in Authors list (help)
  52. ↑ "An Comunn Gàidhealach - Royal National Mod : Royal National Mod". www.ancomunn.co.uk. Retrieved 24 April 2017.
  53. ↑ "EU green light for Scots Gaelic". BBC News Online. 7 October 2009. Retrieved 7 October 2009.
  54. ↑ BBC Reception advice – BBC Online
  55. 1 2 About BBC Alba, from BBC Online
  56. ↑ "Caithness councillors harden resolve against Gaelic signs". The Press and Journal. 24 October 2008. Retrieved 22 December 2011.
  57. ↑ "Ainmean-Àite na h-Alba - Gaelic Place-Names of Scotland - About Us". www.ainmean-aite.org. Retrieved 24 April 2017.
  58. ↑ Bumstead, J.M (2006). "Scots". Multicultural Canada. Archived from the original on 26 December 2012. Retrieved 2006-08-30.
  59. ↑ Newton, Michael (2015). Seanchaidh na Coille / Memory-Keeper of the Forest: Anthology of Scottish Gaelic Literature of Canada. Cape Breton University Press. ISBN 978-1-77206-016-4.
  60. ↑ Dembling, Jonathan (2006). "Gaelic in Canada: New Evidence from an Old Census". academia.edu. Dunedin Academic Press Ltd. Retrieved 2 January 2017.
  61. ↑ "National Household Survey Profile, Nova Scotia, 2011". 2.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved 2014-08-15.
  62. ↑ "2011 Census of Canada: Topic-based tabulations, Detailed Mother Tongue, Nova Scotia". 2.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved 2014-08-15.
  63. ↑ Pupils in Scotland, 2006 from scot.gov.uk. Published February 2007, Scottish Government.
  64. ↑ Pupils in Scotland, 2008 from scot.gov.uk. Published February 2009, Scottish Government.
  65. ↑ Pupils in Scotland, 2009 from scotland.gov.uk. Published 27 November 2009, Scottish Government.
  66. ↑ "Scottish Government: Pupils Census, Supplementary Data". Scotland.gov.uk. 2011-06-14. Retrieved 2014-03-27.
  67. ↑ Pupil Census, Supplementary data 2011 Spreadsheet published 3 February 2012 (Table 1.13)
  68. ↑ Pupil Census, Supplementary data 2012 Spreadsheet published 11 December 2012 (Table 1.13)
  69. ↑ Pupil Census, Supplementary data 2013 Spreadsheet (Table 1.13)
  70. ↑ Pupil Census, Supplementary data 2014 Spreadsheet (Table 1.13)
  71. ↑ Pupil Census, Supplementary data 2015 Spreadsheet (Table 1.13)
  72. ↑ Pupil Census, Supplementary data 2015 Spreadsheet (Table 1.13)
  73. ↑ Pagoeta, Mikel Morris (2001). Europe Phrasebook. Lonely Planet. p. 416. ISBN 1-86450-224-X.
  74. ↑ O'Hanlon, Fiona (2012). Lost in transition? Celtic language revitalization in Scotland and Wales: the primary to secondary school stage (Thesis). The University of Edinburgh.
  75. ↑ O'Hanlon, Fiona (2012). Lost in transition? Celtic language revitalization in Scotland and Wales: the primary to secondary school stage (Thesis). The University of Edinburgh. p. 48.
  76. ↑ "Gael-force wind of change in the classroom". The Scotsman. 2008-10-29. Retrieved 2011-06-08.
  77. ↑ "Gaelic core class increasingly popular in Nova Scotia". Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. 2015-01-26. Retrieved 2015-11-04.
  78. ↑ MacLeod, Murdo (6 January 2008). "Free Church plans to scrap Gaelic communion service". The Scotsman. Edinburgh.
  79. ↑ "Gaelic added to Scotland strips". BBC News Online. 24 August 2006. Retrieved 4 January 2010.
  80. ↑ "Scottish Rugby Union: "Put 'Alba' on Scottish Ruby Shirt"". Facebook. Retrieved 2014-03-27.
  81. ↑ "Gàidhlig air lèintean rugbaidh na h-Alba" (in Scottish Gaelic). BBC Alba.
  82. ↑ "Alba air Taghadh - beò à Inbhir Nis". BBC Radio nan Gàidheal. BBC. Retrieved 19 January 2017.
  83. ↑ "Catrìona Anna Nic a' Phì". BBC (in Scottish Gaelic). Retrieved 19 January 2017.
  84. ↑ Woulfe, Patrick. "Gaelic Surnames". www.libraryireland.com. Retrieved 24 April 2017.
  85. ↑ Dorian, Nancy C. Language death: the life cycle of a Scottish Gaelic dialect. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 88. ISBN 9780812277852. Retrieved 24 April 2017.

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