Wheel of the Year

The Wheel of the Year in the Northern Hemisphere. Pagans in the Southern Hemisphere advance these dates six months to coincide with their own seasons.

The Wheel of the Year is an annual cycle of seasonal festivals, observed by many modern Pagans. It consists of either four or eight festivals: either the solstices and equinoxes, known as the "quarter days", or the four midpoints between, known as the "cross quarter days"; syncretic traditions like Wicca often celebrate all eight festivals.

The festivals celebrated by differing sects of modern Paganism can vary considerably in name and date. Observing the cycle of the seasons has been important to many people, both ancient and modern, and many contemporary Pagan festivals are based to varying degrees on folk traditions.[1]

Among Wiccans, the festivals are also referred to as sabbats /ˈsæbət/, with Gerald Gardner claiming this term was passed down from the Middle Ages, when the terminology for Jewish Shabbat was commingled with that of other heretical celebrations.[2]

Origins

The contemporary Wheel of the Year is somewhat of a modern innovation. Many historical pagan traditions celebrated various equinoxes, solstices, and the days approximately midway between them (termed cross-quarter days) for their seasonal and agricultural significances. But none were known to have held all eight above all other annual, sacred times. The modern understanding of the Wheel is a result of the cross-cultural awareness that began developing by the time of Modern Europe.

Mid-20th century British Paganism had a strong influence on early adoption of an eightfold Wheel. By the late 1950s, the Wiccan Bricket Wood coven and Order of Bards, Ovates and Druids had both adopted eightfold ritual calendars, for balance and more frequent celebrations. This also had the benefit of more closely aligning celebration between the two influential Pagan orders.[3][4]

Due to early Wicca's influence on Paganism and their syncretic adoption of Anglo-Saxon and Celtic motifs, the most commonly used English festival names for the Wheel of the Year tend to be Celtic and Germanic.

The American Ásatrú movement has adopted, over time, a calendar in which the Heathen major holidays figure alongside many Days of Remembrance which celebrate heroes of the Edda and the Sagas, figures of Germanic history, and the Viking Leif Ericson, who explored and settled Vinland (North America). These festivals are not, however, as evenly distributed throughout the year as in Wicca and other Heathen denominations.

Festivals

The eight-armed sun cross is often used to represent the Neopagan Wheel of the Year.

In many traditions of modern Pagan cosmology, all things are considered to be cyclical, with time as a perpetual cycle of growth and retreat tied to the Sun's annual death and rebirth. This cycle is also viewed as a micro- and macrocosm of other life cycles in an immeasurable series of cycles composing the Universe. The days that fall on the landmarks of the yearly cycle traditionally mark the beginnings and middles of the four seasons. They are regarded with significance and host to major communal festivals. These eight festivals are the most common times for community celebrations.[1][5][6]

While the "major" festivals are usually the quarter and cross-quarter days, other festivals are also celebrated throughout the year, especially among the non-Wiccan traditions such as those of polytheistic reconstructionism and other ethnic traditions.

In Wiccan and Wicca-influenced traditions, the festivals, being tied to solar movements, have generally been steeped in solar mythology and symbolism, centred around the life cycles of the sun. Similarly, the Wiccan esbats are traditionally tied to the lunar cycles. Together, they represent the most common celebrations in Wiccan-influenced forms of Neopaganism, especially in contemporary Witchcraft groups.[5][6]

Midwinter (Yule)

Midwinter has been recognised as a significant turning point in the yearly cycle since the late Stone Age. The ancient megalithic sites of Newgrange and Stonehenge, carefully aligned with the solstice sunrise and sunset, exemplify this.[7] The reversal of the Sun's ebbing presence in the sky symbolizes the rebirth of the solar god and presages the return of fertile seasons. From Germanic to Roman tradition, this is the most important time of celebration.[8][9][10]

Practices vary, but sacrifices, feasting, and gift giving are common elements of Midwinter festivities. Bringing sprigs and wreaths of evergreenery (such as holly, ivy, mistletoe, yew, and pine) into the home and tree decorating are also common during this time.[8][9][11][12]

In Germanic traditions, this liminal festival marks the last month of the old year and the first month of the new year and is followed by eleven days of extended celebration.[9] In Roman traditions additional festivities take place during the six days leading up to Midwinter.[10]

Imbolc

As the first cross-quarter day following Midwinter this day falls on the first of February and traditionally marks the first stirrings of spring. It is time for purification and spring cleaning in anticipation of the year's new life. In Rome, it was historically a shepherd's holiday.[13] and among Celts associated with the onset of ewes' lactation, prior to birthing the spring lambs.[14][15]

For Celtic pagans, the festival is dedicated to the goddess Brigid, daughter of The Dagda and one of the Tuatha Dé Danann.[15]

Among Reclaiming tradition Witches, this is the traditional time for pledges and rededications for the coming year[16] and for initiation among Dianic Wiccans.[17]

Vernal Equinox (Ostara)

The annual cycle of insolation (Sun energy, shown in blue) with key points for seasons (middle), quarter days (top) and cross-quarter days (bottom) along with months (lower) and Zodiac houses (upper). The cycle of temperature (shown in pink) is delayed by seasonal lag.

Derived from a reconstruction produced by linguist Jacob Grimm of an Old High German form of the Old English goddess name Ēostre, Ostara marks the vernal equinox in some modern Pagan traditions.

Beltane

Traditionally the first day of summer in Ireland, in Rome the earliest celebrations appeared in pre-Christian times with the festival of Flora, the Roman goddess of flowers, and the Walpurgis Night celebrations of the Germanic countries.[18]

Since the Christianisation of Europe, a more secular version of the festival has continued in Europe and America. In this form, it is well known for maypole dancing and the crowning of the Queen of the May.

Midsummer (Litha)

Midsummer is one of the four solar holidays, and is considered the turning point at which summer reaches its height and the sun shines longest. Among the Wiccan sabbats, Midsummer is preceded by Beltane, and followed by Lammas or Lughnasadh.

Some Wiccan traditions call the festival Litha, a name occurring in Bede's The Reckoning of Time (De Temporum Ratione, 8th century), which preserves a list of the (then-obsolete) Anglo-Saxon names for the twelve months. Ærra Liða (first or preceding Liða) roughly corresponds to June in the Gregorian calendar, and Æfterra Liða (following Liða) to July. Bede writes that "Litha means gentle or navigable, because in both these months the calm breezes are gentle and they were wont to sail upon the smooth sea".[19]

Lammas/Lughnasadh

Lammas or Lughnasadh (/ˈluːnæsə/ LOO-nas-ə) is the first of the three Wiccan harvest festivals, the other two being the autumnal equinox (or Mabon) and Samhain. Wiccans mark the holiday by baking a figure of the god in bread and eating it, to symbolise the sanctity and importance of the harvest. Celebrations vary, as not all Pagans are Wiccans. The Irish name Lughnasadh[3][20] is used in some traditions to designate this holiday. Wiccan celebrations of this holiday are neither generally based on Celtic culture nor centered on the Celtic deity Lugh. This name seems to have been a late adoption among Wiccans. In early versions of Wiccan literature the festival is referred to as August Eve.[21]

The name Lammas (contraction of loaf mass) implies it is an agrarian-based festival and feast of thanksgiving for grain and bread, which symbolises the first fruits of the harvest. Christian festivals may incorporate elements from the Pagan Ritual.[20][22]

Autumnal equinox (Mabon)

The holiday of the autumnal equinox, Harvest Home, Mabon, the Feast of the Ingathering, Meán Fómhair or Alban Elfed (in Neo-Druid traditions), is a Pagan ritual of thanksgiving for the fruits of the earth and a recognition of the need to share them to secure the blessings of the Goddess and the God during the coming winter months. The name Mabon was coined by Aidan Kelly around 1970 as a reference to Mabon ap Modron, a character from Welsh mythology.[23] Among the sabbats, it is the second of the three Pagan harvest festivals, preceded by Lammas / Lughnasadh and followed by Samhain.

Samhain

Neopagans honoring the dead as part of a Samhain ritual

Samhain (/ˈsɑːwɪn/ SOW-in) is considered by Wiccans to be one of the four Greater Sabbats. Samhain is considered by some as a time to celebrate the lives of those who have passed on, and it often involves paying respect to ancestors, family members, elders of the faith, friends, pets, and other loved ones who have died. In some rituals the spirits of the departed are invited to attend the festivities. It is seen as a festival of darkness, which is balanced at the opposite point of the wheel by the festival of Beltane, which is celebrated as a festival of light and fertility.[24]

Many Pagans believe that at Samhain the veil between this world and the afterlife is at its thinnest point of the whole year, making it easier to communicate with those who have left this world.[6]

Minor festivals

In addition to the eight major holidays common to most modern Pagans, there are a number of minor holidays during the year to commemorate various events.

Germanic

The common holidays of Heathenism (black: main names; gray: alternative names; purple: minor common holidays).

The minor holidays common in contemporary Germanic Paganism:

Dates of celebration

The precise dates on which festivals are celebrated are often flexible. Dates may be on the days of the quarter and cross-quarter days proper, the nearest full moon, the nearest new moon, or the nearest weekend for secular convenience. The festivals were originally celebrated by peoples in the middle latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere. Consequently, the traditional times for seasonal celebrations do not agree with the seasons in the Southern Hemisphere or near the equator. Pagans in the Southern Hemisphere often advance these dates by six months to coincide with their own seasons.[6][28][29][30]

Practice

Celebration commonly takes place outdoors in the form of a communal gathering.

Sacrifice

Offerings of food, drink, various objects, etc. have been central in ritual propitiation and veneration for millennia. Modern Pagan practice strongly avoids sacrificing animals in favour of grains, herbs, milk, wines, incense, baked goods, minerals, etc. The exception being with ritual feasts including meat, where the inedible parts of the animal are often burned as offerings while the community eats the rest.[31][32]

Sacrifices are typically offered to gods and ancestors by burning them. Burying and leaving offerings in the open are also common in certain circumstances. The purpose of offering is to benefit the venerated, show gratitude, and give something back, strengthening the bonds between humans and divine and between members of a community.[31][33][34]

Narratives

Celtic

It is a misconception in some quarters of the Neopagan community, influenced by the writings of Robert Graves,[35] that historical Celts had an overarching narrative for the cycle of the year. The evidence for this is lacking and modern revivalists often observe only the four Gaelic fire festivals of the Celtic calendars.[36][37]

Slavic

Kołomir – the Slavic example of Wheel of the Year indicating seasons of the year. Four-point and eight-point swastika-shaped wheels were more common.

Slavic mythology tells of a persisting conflict involving Perun, god of thunder and lightning, and Veles, the black god and horned god of the underworld. Enmity between the two is initiated by Veles' annual ascent up the world tree in the form of a huge serpent and his ultimate theft of Perun's divine cattle from the heavenly domain. Perun retaliates to this challenge of the divine order by pursuing Veles, attacking with his lightning bolts from the sky. Veles taunts Perun and flees, transforming himself into various animals and hiding behind trees, houses, even people. (Lightning bolts striking down trees or homes were explained as results of this.) In the end Perun overcomes and defeats Veles, returning him to his place in the realm of the dead. Thus the order of the world is maintained.[38][39][40]

The idea that storms and thunder are actually divine battle is pivotal to the changing of the seasons. Dry periods are identified as chaotic results of Veles' thievery. This duality and conflict represents an opposition of the natural principles of earth, water, substance, and chaos (Veles) and of heaven, fire, spirit, order (Perun), not a clash of good and evil. The cosmic battle between the two also echoes the ancient Indo-European narrative of a fight between the sky-borne storm god and chthonic dragon.

On the great night (New Year), two children of Perun are born, Jarilo, god of fertility and vegetation and son of the Moon, and Morana, goddess of nature and death and daughter of the Sun. On the same night, the infant Jarilo is snatched and taken to the underworld, where Veles raises him as his own. At the time of the spring equinox, Jarilo returns across the sea from the world of the dead, bringing with him fertility and spring from the evergreen underworld into the realm of the living. He meets his sister Morana and courts her. With the beginning of summer, the two are married bringing fertility and abundance to Earth, ensuring a bountiful harvest. The union of Perun's kin and Veles' stepson brings peace between two great gods, staving off storms which could damage the harvest. After the harvest, however, Jarilo is unfaithful to his wife and she vengefully slays him, returning him to the underworld and renewing enmity between Perun and Veles. Without her husband, god of fertility and vegetation, Morana – and all of nature with her – withers and freezes in the ensuing winter. She grows into the old and dangerous goddess of darkness and frost, eventually dying by the year's end only to be reborn again with her brother in the new year.[38][39]

Modern Wicca and Neo-druidism

Painted Wheel of the Year from the Museum of Witchcraft, Boscastle.

In Wicca, the narrative of the Wheel of the Year traditionally centres on the sacred marriage of the God and the Goddess and the god/goddess duality. In this cycle, the God is perpetually born from the Goddess at Yule, grows in power at the vernal equinox (as does the Goddess, now in her maiden aspect), courts and impregnates the Goddess at Beltane, reaches his peak at the summer solstice, wanes in power at Lammas, passes into the underworld at Samhain (taking with him the fertility of the Goddess/Earth, who is now in her crone aspect) until he is once again born from Her mother/crone aspect at Yule. The Goddess, in turn, ages and rejuvenates endlessly with the seasons, being courted by and giving birth to the Horned God.[6][41][42]

Many Wiccan, Neo-Druid, and eclectic Neopagans incorporate a narrative of the Oak King and the Holly King as rulers of the waxing year and the waning year respectively. These two figures battle endlessly with the turning of the seasons. At the summer solstice, the Holly King defeats the Oak King and commences his reign.[43]:94 After the Autumn equinox the Oak King slowly begins to regain his power as the sun begins to wane. Come the winter solstice the Oak King in turn vanquishes the Holly King.[43]:137After the spring equinox the sun begins to wax again and the Holly King slowly regains his strength until he once again defeats the Oak King at the summer solstice. The two are ultimately seen as essential parts of a whole, light and dark aspects of the male God, and would not exist without each other.[6][44][45][46]

The Holly King is often portrayed as a woodsy figure, similar to the modern Santa Claus, dressed in red with sprigs of holly in his hair and the Oak King as a fertility god.[47][48]

See also

References

  1. 1 2 Harvey, Graham (1994). "The Roots of Pagan Ecology". Journal of Contemporary Religion. 9 (3): 38–41. doi:10.1080/13537909408580720.
  2. ↑ Gardner, Gerald (1954). Witchcraft Today. p. 147.
  3. 1 2 Hutton, Ronald, The Pagan Religions of the Ancient British Isles, Oxford, Blackwell, pp. 337–341, ISBN 0-631-18946-7
  4. ↑ Lamond, Frederic (2004), Fifty Years of Wicca, Sutton Mallet, England: Green Magic, pp. 16–17, ISBN 0-9547230-1-5
  5. 1 2 Zell-Ravenheart, Oberon; Zell-Ravenheart, Morning Glory (2006), "Book III: Wheel of the Year", in Kirsten Dalley and Artemisia, Creating Circles & Ceremonies: Rituals for All Seasons And Reasons, Book-Mart Press, p. 192, ISBN 1-56414-864-5
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Nevill Drury (2009). "The Modern Magical Revival: Esbats and Sabbats". In Pizza, Murphy; Lewis, James R. Handbook of Contemporary Paganism. Leiden, Netherlands: Brill Publishers. pp. 63–67. ISBN 9789004163737.
  7. ↑ Johnson, Anthony (2008). Solving Stonehenge: The New Key to an Ancient Enigma. Thames & Hudson. pp. 252–253. ISBN 0-500-05155-0.
  8. 1 2 Zell-Ravenheart, Oberon; Zell-Ravenheart, Morning Glory (2006). "7. Yule (Winter Solstice)". Creating Circles & Ceremonies: Rituals for All Seasons And Reasons. Career Press. pp. 250–252. ISBN 1-56414-864-5.
  9. 1 2 3 Krasskova, Galina; Wodening, Swain (2005). "Chapter 10: Holy Tides". In Leadbetter, Clayton W. Exploring The Northern Tradition: A Guide To The Gods, Lore, Rites And Celebrations From The Norse, German And Anglo-Saxon Traditions. Career Press. pp. 181, 182. ISBN 1-56414-791-6.
  10. 1 2 Gagarin, Michael (2010). "S". The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome: Volume 1. Oxford University Press. p. 231. ISBN 0-19517-072-5.
  11. ↑ Selbie, John A. (1914). "Gifts (Greek and Roman)". In Hastings, James. Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics, Volume 6. New York; Edinburgh: Charles Scribner's Sons; T. & T. Clark. p. 212.
  12. ↑ Harvey, Graham (2000). "1: Celebrating the Seasons". Contemporary Paganism: Listening People, Speaking Earth. NYU Press. pp. 6–8. ISBN 0-8147-3549-5.
  13. ↑ Plutarch. Life of Caesar. Parallel Lives. Alexander and Caesar.
  14. ↑ Chadwick, Nora K.; Cunliffe, Barry (1970). The Celts. Harmondsworth: Penguin. p. 181. ISBN 0-14-021211-6.
  15. 1 2 Rabinovitch, Shelley T.; Lewis, James R. (2004). The Encyclopedia of Modern Witchcraft and Neo-Paganism. Citadel Press. pp. 232–233. ISBN 0-8065-2407-3.
  16. ↑ Starhawk (1979). The Spiral Dance: A Rebirth of the Ancient Religion of the Great Goddess (1989 revised ed.). New York, New York: Harper and Row. pp. 7–186, 246. ISBN 0-06-250814-8.
  17. ↑ Budapest, Zsuzsanna E. (1980). The Holy Book of Women's Mysteries. ISBN 0-914728-67-9.
  18. ↑ Zell-Ravenheart, Oberon; Zell-Ravenheart, Morning Glory (2006), "Book III: Wheel of the Year", in Kirsten Dalley and Artemisia, Creating Circles & Ceremonies: Rituals for All Seasons And Reasons, Book-Mart Press, pp. 203–206, ISBN 1-56414-864-5
  19. ↑ Beda, Venerabilis (1999). Bede, the reckoning of time. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press. p. 54. ISBN 9781846312663.
  20. 1 2 Starhawk (1979, 1989) The Spiral Dance: A Rebirth of the Ancient Religion of the Great Goddess. New York, Harper and Row ISBN 0-06-250814-8 pp.191-2 (revised edition)
  21. ↑ The Gardnerian Book of Shadows online
  22. ↑ "Lammas (n.)". etymonline.com. Retrieved 25 November 2012.
  23. ↑ Zell-Ravenheart, Oberon Zell-Ravenheart & Morning Glory (2006). Creating circles & ceremonies : rituals for all seasons & reasons. Franklin Lakes, NJ: New Page Books. p. 227. ISBN 1564148645.
  24. ↑ Starhawk (1979, 1989) The Spiral Dance: A Rebirth of the Ancient Religion of the Great Goddess. New York, Harper and Row ISBN 0-06-250814-8 pp.193-6 (revised edition)
  25. 1 2 3 4 5 "Runic Era Calender". asatru.org. Retrieved 24 November 2012.
  26. ↑ Arith Härger (November 2012). "Ancestors Blot 11th of November". whispersofyggdrasil.blogspot.com. Retrieved 24 November 2012.
  27. 1 2 William (Bil) R Linzie (July 2003). "Germanic Spirituality" (PDF). p. 27.
  28. ↑ Hume, Lynne (1997). Witchcraft and Paganism in Australia. Melbourne: Melbourne University Press. ISBN 9780522847826.
  29. ↑ Vos, Donna (2002). Dancing Under an African Moon: Paganism and Wicca in South Africa. Cape Town: Zebra Press. pp. 79–86. ISBN 9781868726530.
  30. ↑ Bodsworth, Roxanne T (2003). Sunwyse: Celebrating the Sacred Wheel of the Year in Australia. Victoria, Australia: Hihorse Publishing. ISBN 9780909223038.
  31. 1 2 Thomas, Kirk. "The Nature of Sacrifice". Cosmology. Ár nDraíocht Féin: A Druid Fellowship. Retrieved 8 November 2012.
  32. ↑ Bradbury, Scott (1995). "Julian's Pagan Revival and the Decline of Blood Sacrifice". Phoenix. 49 (4 (Winter)): 331–356. JSTOR 1088885. doi:10.2307/1088885.
  33. ↑ Wodening, Galina Krasskova ; foreword by Swain (2005). Exploring the northern tradition a guide to the gods, lore, rites, and celebrations from the Norse, German, and Anglo-Saxon traditions. Franklin Lakes, NJ: New Page Books. ISBN 9781435658943.
  34. ↑ Meuli 1946
  35. ↑ Hutton, Ronald (1993). The Pagan Religions of the Ancient British Isles: Their Nature and Legacy. Oxford: Blackwell publishing. p. 145. ISBN 0-631-18946-7.
  36. ↑ Bonewits, Isaac (2006). Bonewits's Essential Guide to Druidism. New York, New York: Kensington Publishing Group. pp. 179, 183–4, 128–140. ISBN 0-8065-2710-2.
  37. ↑ McColman, Carl (2003). Complete Idiot's Guide to Celtic Wisdom. Alpha Press. pp. 12, 51. ISBN 0-02-864417-4.
  38. 1 2 Leeming, David (2005). "A-Z Entries". The Oxford Companion to World Mythology. New York, New York: Oxford University Press. p. 360. ISBN 0-19-515669-2.
  39. 1 2 Hlobil, Karel (2009). "Chapter Eleven:Slavic Mythology". Before You. Insomniac Press. ISBN 1-92-658247-0.
  40. ↑ Lyle, Emily (2008). "Time and the Indo-European Gods in the Slavic Context." (PDF). Studia mythologica Slavica. 11: 115–126.
  41. ↑ Vivianne Crowley (1989). Wicca: The Old Religion in the New Age. London: Aquarian Press. pp. 162–200. ISBN 9780850307375.
  42. ↑ Starhawk (1999). The Spiral Dance: A Rebirth of the Ancient Religion of the Great Goddess: 20th Anniversary Edition. San Francisco: HarperOne. pp. 197–213. ISBN 9780062516329.
  43. 1 2 Farrar, Janet & Stewart Farrar ; with line illustrations by Stewart; Farrar, photographs by Ian David & Stewart (1984). A witches bible. New York: Magickal Childe. ISBN 093970806X.
  44. ↑ Farrar, Janet and Stewart (1988). Eight Sabbats for Witches, revised edition. Phoenix Publishing. ISBN 0-919345-26-3.
  45. ↑ Joanne Pearson (2002). A Popular Dictionary of Paganism. London: Taylor & Francis Ltd. p. 80. ISBN 9780700715916.
  46. ↑ Carl McColman (2002). The Complete Idiot's Guide to Paganism. Indianapolis, IN: Alpha. p. 121. ISBN 9780028642666.
  47. ↑ Raven Grimassi (2000). Encyclopedia of Wicca & Witchcraft. St Paul, Minnesota: Llewellyn Worldwide. p. 219. ISBN 9781567182576.
  48. ↑ Wigington, Patti. "The Legend of the Holly King and the Oak King". paganwiccan.about.com. Retrieved 25 October 2012.
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