Romanization of Greek

Romanization of Greek is the transliteration (letter-mapping) or transcription (sound-mapping) of text from the Greek alphabet into the Latin alphabet. The conventions for writing and romanizing Ancient Greek and Modern Greek differ markedly, which can create confusion. The sound of the English letter B (/b/) was written as β in ancient Greek but is now written as the digraph μπ, while the modern β sounds like the English letter V (/v/) instead. The Greek name Ἰωάννης became Johannes in Latin and then John in English, but in Greek itself has instead become Γιάννης; this might be written as Yannis, Jani, Ioannis, Yiannis, or Giannis, but not Giannes or Giannēs as it would have been in ancient Greek. The masculine Greek word Ἅγιος or Άγιος might variously appear as Hagiοs, Agios, Aghios, or Ayios, or simply be translated as "Holy" or "Saint" in English forms of Greek placenames.^[1]

Traditional English renderings of Greek names originated from Roman systems established in antiquity. The Roman alphabet itself was a form of the Cumaean alphabet derived from the Euboean script that valued Χ as /ks/ and Η as /h/ and used variant forms of Λ and Σ that became L and S.^[2] When this script was used to write the classical Greek alphabet, ⟨κ⟩ was replaced with ⟨c⟩, ⟨αι⟩ and ⟨οι⟩ became ⟨æ⟩ and ⟨œ⟩, and ⟨ει⟩ and ⟨ου⟩ were simplified to ⟨i⟩ (more rarely—corresponding to an earlier pronunciation—⟨e⟩) and ⟨u⟩. Aspirated consonant like ⟨θ⟩, ⟨φ⟩, initial-⟨ρ⟩, and ⟨χ⟩ simply wrote out the sound: ⟨th⟩, ⟨ph⟩, ⟨rh⟩, and ⟨ch⟩. Because English orthography has changed so much from the original Greek, modern scholarly transliteration now usually renders ⟨κ⟩ as ⟨k⟩ and the diphthongs ⟨αι, οι, ει, ου⟩ as ⟨ai, oi, ei, ou⟩.^[3] Modern scholars also increasingly render ⟨χ⟩ as ⟨kh⟩.

The sounds of Modern Greek have diverged from both those of Ancient Greek and their descendant letters in English and other languages. This led to a variety of romanizations for names and placenames in the 19th and 20th century. The Hellenic Organization for Standardization (ELOT) issued its system in cooperation with the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in 1983. This system was adopted (with minor modifications) by the United Nations' Fifth Conference on the Standardization of Geographical Names at Montreal in 1987,^[4][5] by the United Kingdom's Permanent Committee on Geographical Names for British Official Use (PCGN) and by the United States' Board on Geographic Names (BGN) in 1996,^[6] and by the ISO itself in 1997.^[5][7] Romanization of names for official purposes (as with passports and identity cards) were required to use the ELOT system within Greece until 2011, when a legal decision permitted Greeks to use irregular forms^[8] (such as "Demetrios" for Δημήτριος) provided that official identification and documents also list the standard forms (as, for example, "Demetrios OR Dimitrios").^[9] Other romanization systems still encountered are the BGN/PCGN's earlier 1962 system^[5][10] and the system employed by the American Library Association and the United States' Library of Congress.^[3]

"Greeklish" has also spread within Greece itself, owing to the rapid spread of digital telephony from cultures using the Latin alphabet. Since Greek typefaces and fonts are not always supported or robust, Greek email and chatting has adopted a variety of formats for rendering Greek and Greek shorthand using Latin letters. Examples include "8elo" and "thelw" for θέλω, "3ava" for ξανά, and "yuxi" for ψυχή.

Tables

The following tables list several romanization schemes from the Greek alphabet to modern English. For the romanization of Greek into other languages, see the corresponding articles in our sister wikis, such as "Romanisation du grec" on the French Wikipedia. Note, however, that the ELOT, UN, and ISO formats for Modern Greek intend themselves as translingual and may be applied in any language using the Latin alphabet.

Ancient Greek

The American Library Association and Library of Congress romanization scheme employs its "Ancient or Medieval Greek" system for all works and authors up to the Fall of Constantinople in 1453,^[3] although Byzantine Greek was pronounced distinctly and some have considered "Modern" Greek to have begun as early as the 12th century.^[11]

For treatment of polytonic Greek letters—for example, ᾤ—also see the section on romanizing Greek diacritical marks below.

Greek		Classical		ALA-LC [3] (2010)		Beta Code [12]
Α	α	A	a	A	a	*A	A
Αι	αι	Æ	æ	Ai	ai	*AI	AI
Β	β ϐ	B	b	B	b	*B	B
Γ	γ	G	g	G	g	*G	G
	γγ		ng		ng		GG
	γκ		nc		nk		GK
	γξ		nx		nx		GC
	γχ		nch		nch		GX
Δ	δ	D	d	D	d	*D	D
Ε	ε ϵ	E	e	E	e	*E	E
Ει	ει	E	e	Ei	ei	*EI	EI
		I	i
Ζ	ζ	Z	z	Z	z	*Z	Z
Η	η	E	e	Ē	ē	*H	H
Θ	θ ϑ	Th	th	Th	th	*Q	Q
Ι	ι	I	i	I	i	*I	I
Κ	κ ϰ	C	c	K	k	*K	K
Λ	λ	L	l	L	l	*L	L
Μ	μ	M	m	M	m	*M	M
Ν	ν	N	n	N	n	*N	N
Ξ	ξ	X	x	X	x	*C	C
Ο	ο	O	o	O	o	*O	O
Οι	οι	Œ	œ	Oi	oi	*OI	OI
Ου	ου	U	u	Ou	ou	*OU	OU
		O	o
Π	π	P	p	P	p	*P	P
Ρ	ρ ϱ	Rh [n. 1]	rh [n. 1]	Rh [n. 1]	rh [n. 1]	*R	R
		R	r	R	r
Σ	σ	S	s	S	s	*S	S / S1
	ς		s		s		S / S2 / J
Τ	τ	T	t	T	t	*T	T
Υ	υ	Y	y	Y	y	*U	U
					u [n. 2]
Υι	υι	Ui	ui	Ui	ui	*UI	UI
		Yi	yi
Φ		Ph	ph	Ph	ph	*F	F
Χ	χ	Ch	ch	Ch	ch	*X	X
Ψ	ψ	Ps	ps	Ps	ps	*Y	Y
Ω	ω	O	o	Ō	ō	*W	W

Modern Greek

The ISO, UN, and Greek, British, and American governments have all approved an essentially equivalent standard for transcription of Modern Greek into Latin letters; there remain minor differences in how they approach reversible transliteration. The American Library Association and Library of Congress romanization scheme employs its "Modern Greek" system for all works and authors following the Fall of Constantinople in 1453.^[3]

For treatment of accents and diaereses—for example, ΐ—also see the section on romanizing Greek diacritical marks below. Note that adjacent vowels including an accent over the first letter or a diaeresis ( ¨ ) over the second letter are not a digraph and should be romanized separately. (For example, while the word αυλός starts with the digraph αυ and should be romanized as "avlos" or "aulos", depending on the system chosen, the first two letters of the word άυλο are separate syllables, and an appropriate romanization is "aÿlo", where the diaeresis over the letter "y" serves to indicate it is a separate vowel here.)

Greek		Standard		Reversible								Obsolete
				ELOT [13] (2001)		UN [4][14] (1987)		ISO [5][10] (1997)		ALA-LC [3] (2010)		BGN/PCGN [10] (1962)
Α	α	A	a	A	a	A	a	A	a	A	a	A	a
Αι	αι	Ai	ai	Ai	ai	Ai	ai	Ai	ai	Ai	ai	E	e
Αυ	αυ	Av [n. 1]	av [n. 1]	Au	au	Av̱ [n. 1]	av̱ [n. 1]	Au	au	Au	au	Av	av
		Af [n. 2][n. 3]	af [n. 2][n. 3]			Af̱ [n. 2][n. 3]	af̱ [n. 2][n. 3]
		Ay [n. 4]	ay [n. 4]			Ay [n. 4]	ay [n. 4]
Β	β ϐ	V	v	V	v	V	v	V	v	V	v	V	v
Γ	γ	G	g	G	g	G	g	G	g	G	g	G	g
												Y [n. 5]	y [n. 5]
	γγ		ng		gg		ṉg		gg		ng		ng
Γκ	γκ	Gk	gk	Gk	gk	Gk	gk	Gk	gk	Gk	gk [n. 6][n. 3]	G	g [n. 6]
											nk [n. 7]		ng [n. 7][n. 3]
	γξ		nx		gx		ṉx		gx		nx		nx
	γχ		nch		gch		ṉch		gch		nch		nkh
Δ	δ	D	d	D	d	D	d	D	d	D	d	Dh	dh
													d [n. 8]
Ε	ε ϵ	E	e	E	e	E	e	E	e	E	e	E	e
Ει	ει	Ei	ei	Ei	ei	Ei	ei	Ei	ei	Ei	ei	I	i
Ευ	ευ	Ev [n. 1]	ev [n. 1]	Eu	eu	Ev̱ [n. 1]	ev̱ [n. 1]	Eu	eu	Eu	eu	Ev	ev
		Ef [n. 2][n. 3]	ef [n. 2][n. 3]			Ef̱ [n. 2][n. 3]	ef̱ [n. 2][n. 3]
		Ey [n. 4]	ey [n. 4]			Ey [n. 4]	ey [n. 4]
Ζ	ζ	Z	z	Z	z	Z	z	Z	z	Z	z	Z	z
Η	η	I	i	Ī I¯	ī i¯	I̱	i̱	Ī	ī	Ē	ē	I	i
Ηυ	ηυ	Iv [n. 1]	iv [n. 1]	Īy I¯y	īy i¯y	I̱v̱ [n. 1]	i̱v̱ [n. 1]	Īy	īy	Ēu	ēu	Iv	iv
		If [n. 2][n. 3]	if [n. 2][n. 3]			I̱f̱ [n. 2][n. 3]	i̱f̱ [n. 2][n. 3]
		Iy [n. 4]	iy [n. 4]			I̱y [n. 4]	i̱y [n. 4]
Θ	θ ϑ	Th	th	Th	th	Th	th	Th	th	Th	th	Th	th
Ι	ι	I	i	I	i	I	i	I	i	I	i	I	i
Κ	κ ϰ	K	k	K	k	K	k	K	k	K	k	K	k
Λ	λ	L	l	L	l	L	l	L	l	L	l	L	l
Μ	μ	M	m	M	m	M	m	M	m	M	m	M	m
Μπ	μπ	B	b [n. 6][n. 3]	Mp	mp	B	b [n. 6][n. 3]	Mp	mp	B	b [n. 6]	B	b [n. 6]
			mp [n. 7]				mp [n. 7]				mp [n. 7][n. 3]		mp [n. 7][n. 3]
Ν	ν	N	n	N	n	N	n	N	n	N	n	N	n
Ντ	ντ	Nt	nt	Nt	nt	Nt	nt	Nt	nt	Ḏ D_	ḏ [n. 6] d_	D	d [n. 6]
											nt [n. 7][n. 3]		nd [n. 7][n. 3]
													nt [n. 9]
Ξ	ξ	X	x	X	x	X	x	X	x	X	x	X	x
Ο	ο	O	o	O	o	O	o	O	o	O	o	O	o
Οι	οι	Oi	oi	Oi	oi	Oi	oi	Oi	oi	Oi	oi	I	i
Ου	ου	Ou	ou	Ou	ou	Ou	ou	Ou	ou	Ou	ou	Ou	ou
		Oy [n. 4]	oy [n. 4]	Oy [n. 4]	oy [n. 4]	Oy [n. 4]	oy [n. 4]			Oy [n. 4]	oy [n. 4]	Oi [n. 4]	oi [n. 4]
Π	π	P	p	P	p	P	p	P	p	P	p	P	p
Ρ	ρ ϱ	R	r	R	r	R	r	R	r	R	r	R	r
Σ	σ	S	s	S	s	S	s	S	s	S	s	S	s
	ς		s		s		s		s		s		s
Τ	τ	T	t	T	t	T	t	T	t	T	t	T	t
Υ	υ	Y	y	Y	y	Y	y	Y	y	Y	y	I	i
			u [n. 10]		u [n. 10]		u [n. 10]				u [n. 10]
Υι	υι	Yi	yi	Yi	yi	Yi	yi	Yi	yi	Ui	ui	I	i
Φ		F	f	F	f	F	f	F	f	Ph	ph	F	f
Χ	χ	Ch	ch	Ch	ch	Ch	ch	Ch	ch	Ch	ch	Kh	kh
Ψ	ψ	Ps	ps	Ps	ps	Ps	ps	Ps	ps	Ps	ps	Ps	ps
Ω	ω	O	o	Ō O¯	ō o¯	O̱	o̱	Ō	ō	Ō	ō	O	o
Ωυ	ωυ	Oy	oy	Ōy O¯y	ōy o¯y	O̱y	o̱y	Ōu	ōu	Ōu	ōu	Ou	ou

Diacritical marks

The traditional polytonic orthography of Greek uses several distinct diacritical marks to render what was originally the pitch accent of Ancient Greek and the presence or absence of word-initial /h/. In 1982, monotonic orthography was officially introduced for modern Greek. The only diacritics that remain are the acute accent (indicating stress) and the diaeresis (indicating that two consecutive vowels should not be combined).

When a Greek diphthong is accented, the accent mark is placed over the second letter of the pair. This means that an accent over the first letter of the pair indicates vowels which should be taken (and romanized) separately. Although the second vowel is not marked with a superfluous diaeresis in Greek, the first-edition ELOT 743 and the UN systems place a diaeresis on the Latin vowel for the sake of clarity.^[15][4]

Apart from the diacritical marks native to Greek itself or used to romanize its characters, linguists also regularly mark vowel length with macrons ( ¯ ) marking long vowels and rounded breves ( ˘ ) marking short vowels. Where these are romanized, it is common to mark the long vowels with macrons over the Latin letters and to leave the short vowels unmarked; such macrons should not be confused or conflated with those used by some systems to mark eta and omega as distinct from epsilon, iota, and omicron.

Numerals

Greece's early Attic numerals were based on a small sample of letters (including heta) arranged in multiples of 5 and 10, likely forming the inspiration for the later Etruscan and Roman numerals.

This early system was replaced by Greek numerals which employed the entire alphabet, including the nonstandard letters digamma, stigma, or sigma-tau (placed between epsilon and zeta), koppa (placed between pi and rho), and sampi (placed after omega). As revised in 2001, ELOT 743 provides for the uncommon characters to be given (in Greek) as $ for stigma, + for koppa, and / for sampi. These symbols are not given lower-case equivalents.^[13] When used as numbers, the letters are used in combination with the upper keraia numeral sign ⟨ʹ⟩ to denote numbers from 1 to 900 and in combination with the lower keraia ⟨͵⟩ to denote multiples of 1000. (For a full table of the signs and their values, see Greek numerals.)

These values are traditionally romanized as Roman numerals, so that Αλέξανδρος Γ' ο Μακεδών would be translated as Alexander III of Macedon and transliterated as Aléxandros III o Makedṓn rather than Aléxandros G' or Aléxandros 3. Greek laws and other official documents of Greece which employ these numerals, however, are to be formally romanized using "decimal" (Arabic) numerals.^[13]

Punctuation marks

Ancient Greek text did not mark word division with spaces or interpuncts, instead running the words together (scripta continua). In the Hellenistic period, a variety of symbols arose for punctuation or editorial marking; such punctuation (or the lack thereof) are variously romanized, inserted, or ignored in different modern editions.

Modern Greek punctuation generally follows French with the notable exception of Greek's use of a separate question mark, the erotimatiko, which is shaped like the Latinate semicolon. Greek punctuation which has been given formal romanizations include:

Uncommon letters

There are many archaic forms and local variants of the Greek alphabet. Beta, for example, might appear as round Β or pointed throughout Greece but is also found in the forms (at Gortyn), and (Thera), (Argos), (Melos), (Corinth), (Megara and Byzantium), and even (Cyclades).^[16] Well into the modern period, classical and medieval Greek was also set using a wide array of ligatures, symbols combining or abbreviating various sets of letters, such as those included in Claude Garamond's 16th-century grecs du roi. For the most part, such variants—as ϖ and for π, ϛ for στ, and ϗ for και—are just silently emended to their standard forms and transliterated accordingly. Letters with no equivalent in the classical Greek alphabet such as heta (Ͱ & ͱ), meanwhile, usually take their nearest English equivalent (in this case, h) but are too uncommon to be listed in formal transliteration schemes.

Uncommon Greek letters which have been given formal romanizations include:

See also

• ISO 843 and Beta Code
• Classical compound
• Greek orthography
• Cyrillization of Greek
• Lists of English words of Greek origin
• List of Latin and Greek words commonly used in systematic names
• Wiktionary's articles on Ancient and Modern Greek romanization, numerals, and punctuation

References

External links

• ELOT 743, a free online tool by the Greek government for official purposes using 2nd-edition ELOT transcription (in Greek)
• Google Translate, a free online tool providing UN transliteration of Modern Greek. Also comes as application
• Transliterate.com, a free online tool providing transliteration of Ancient Greek
• Transliteration of Non-Roman Scripts, tables in pdf format by Thomas T. Pedersen
• Greeklish converter Greeklish to Greek conversion and Greek transliteration with user-selectable options