Right-wing terrorism

Right-wing terrorism is terrorism motivated by a variety of ideologies and beliefs, including anti-communism, neo-fascism, neo-Nazism, and a mindset against abortion. This type of terrorism has been sporadic, with little or no international cooperation.[1] Modern radical right-wing terrorism first appeared in Western Europe in the 1980s and it first appeared in Eastern Europe following the dissolution of the Soviet Union.[2]

Right-wing terrorists aim to overthrow governments and replace them with nationalist or fascist-oriented regimes.[1] The core of this movement includes neo-fascist skinheads, far-right hooligans, youth sympathisers and intellectual guides who believe that the state must rid itself of foreign elements in order to protect its rightful citizens.[3] However, they usually lack a rigid ideology.[4]

Causes

Armin Falk and colleagues suggests that Right-Wing Extremist Crime (REC), which includes anti-foreigner and racist motivations, is associated with unemployment rates (261). Consequently, as unemployment rates increase, REC also increases. This correlation can be found in several countries including Germany, United States, and the United Kingdom. Additionally, this phenomenon is not necessarily associated with individuals, rather unemployment impacts society's humanitarian values of tolerance and altruism. Meaning, as unemployment rates increase, humanitarian values of tolerance and altruism decrease according to Falk. This cause of right-wing terrorism can be associated with a functionalist perspective on employment. Ferrante defines a functionalist approach as "how the parts of society contribute in expected and unexpected way of maintain an existing social order" (26). Work and employment serve several functions for society (University of Minnesota 12.2). The University of Minnesota Library suggests that employment provides workers with an income and also contributes to their self-identity and fulfillment (12.2). When employment is low, this leads to a perceived threat towards self-identity and fulfillment which can then lead to a larger possibility for right-wing terrorism to occur.

A second cause of right-wing terrorism as Thomas Greven suggests, is populism, or more accurately, right-wing populism. Jan-Werner Muller describes populism as a form of identity politics that is inherently anti-establishment and anti-pluralist (3). More simply put, populism supports the advancement of 'the average citizen', and does not support the agendas of the privileged elite. Furthermore, Greven defines right-wing populist as those who support ethnocentrism, and have an opposition to immigration (3). Right-wing populist policies that have been covered in the media recently include the Executive Order 13769, which is the travel ban from Muslim-majority countries to the United States, and the Immigration policy of Donald Trump which proposes that a wall is built between the United States and Mexico to prevent illegal immigrants from coming to the United States. Greven suggests that immigration policy not only threatens economic competition, but also threatens traditional values and identities (5). Due to the ethnocentric motivations behind these policies, they are classified as right-wing populism. Because right-wing populism creates a climate of 'us versus them', terrorism is more likely to occur according to Greven. This cause of right-wing terrorism can be associated with a conflict perspective. Ferrante explains the conflict perspective as a focus on conflict regarding scarce resources and the strategies advantaged groups used to perpetuate social agreement arrangements from which they benefit (30). When people feel as though their traditional values are being threatened by the social elite who contribute to the rise in immigration, conflict ensues, and terrorism follows.

Africa

South Africa

In 1993 Chris Hani, the General Secretary of the South African Communist Party was murdered by Polish-born far-right anti-Communist Janusz Waluś who had been lent a firearm by far-right pro-Apartheid MP Clive Derby-Lewis. The Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging, a neo-Nazi paramilitary organisation has often been described as terrorist. In 2010 South African authorities foiled a plot by far-right terrorists to commit attacks as revenge for the murder of Eugène Terre'Blanche, seizing explosives and firearms.[5]

Americas

Brazil

During Brazil's military government, some right-wing military engaged in violent repression. The Riocentro 1981 May Day Attack was a bombing attempt that happened on the night of April 30, 1981. Severe casualties were suffered by the terrorists. While an NGO held a fundraiser fighting for democracy and free elections and celebrating the upcoming holiday, a bomb exploded at Riocentro parking area killing army seargent Guilherme Pereira do Rosário and severely wounding captain Wilson Dias Machado, who survived the bomb explosion. The bomb exploded inside a car where both were preparing it. Rosário died instantaneously. They were the only casualties.

The Para-SAR example[6][7] was revealed by Brazilian Air Force captain Sérgio Ribeiro Miranda de Carvalho in 1968 before it reached the execution phase as it was made public to the press after a meeting with his superior Brigadier General João Paulo Burnier and chief of Para-SAR unity. Burnier discussed a secret plan to bomb a dense traffic area of Rio de Janeiro known as "Gasômetro" during commute and later claim that Communists were the perpretrators. He expected to be able to run a witch-hunt against the growing political military opposition. Burnier also mentioned his intentions on making the Para-SAR, a Brazilian Air Force rescue unity, a tool for eliminating some military government political oppositors throwing them to the sea at a wide distance of the coast. On both of these events, no military involved on these actions or planning was arrested, charged or faced retaliation from the Brazilian military government. The only exception is captain Sérgio de Carvalho which had to leave the air force for facing his superiors retaliation after whistleblowing brigadier Burnier's plan.

Colombia

Colombian paramilitary groups were responsible for most of the human rights violations in the latter half of the ongoing Colombian conflict.[8] The first paramilitary terrorist[9] groups were organized by U.S. military advisers who were sent during the Cold War to combat the spread of leftist politicians, activists and guerrillas.[10][11]

According to several international human rights and governmental organizations, right-wing paramilitary groups were responsible for at least 70 to 80% of political murders in Colombia per year.[8][12]

This groups were financed and protected by elite landowners, drug traffickers, members of the security forces, right wing politicians and multinational corporations.[13][14][15][16]

Paramilitary violence and terrorism there was principally targeted towards peasants, unionists, indigenous people, human rights workers, teachers and left-wing political activists or their supporters.[17][18][19][20][21][22][23]

Nicaragua

The Contras were a right wing militant group, backed by the United States, that fought against the Sandinista National Liberation Front in Nicaragua. They were responsible for numerous human rights violations and carried out over 1300 terrorist attacks.[24][25]

United States

Reconstruction era

The term "white terrorism" is used by scholars to label terrorism committed against African Americans during the Reconstruction era.[26][27]

Pre-2001

According to George Michael, "right-wing terrorism and violence has a long history in America".[28] Right-wing violent incidents began to outnumber Marxist incidents in the United States during the 1980s and 1990s.[29]:29 Michael observes the waning of left-wing terrorism accompanying the rise of right-wing terrorism, with a noticeable "convergence" of the goals of militant Islam with those of the extreme right. Islamic studies scholar Youssef M. Choueiri classified Islamic fundamentalist movements involving revivalism, reformism, and radicalism as within the scope of "right-wing politics".[30]:9

During the 1980s, more than 75 right-wing extremists were prosecuted in the United States for acts of terrorism, carrying out six attacks.[31] In 1983, Gordon Kahl, a Posse Comitatus activist, killed two federal marshals and was later killed by police. Also that year, the white nationalist revolutionary group The Order (also known as the Brüder Schweigen or Silent Brotherhood) robbed banks and armored cars, as well as a sex shop,[32] bombed a theater and a synagogue and murdered radio talk show host Alan Berg.[33][34]

The April 19, 1995 attack on the Murrah federal building in Oklahoma by Timothy McVeigh and Terry Nichols killed 168 people and was the deadliest act of domestic terrorism in the history of the United States.[35] McVeigh stated that it was retaliation for the government's actions at Ruby Ridge and Waco.[36]

Eric Rudolph executed a series of terrorist attacks between 1996 and 1998. He carried out the 1996 Centennial Olympic Park bombing—which claimed two lives and injured 111—aiming to cancel the games, claiming they promoted global socialism and to embarrass the U.S. government.[37] Rudolph confessed to bombing an abortion clinic in Sandy Springs, an Atlanta suburb, on January 16, 1997, the Otherside Lounge, an Atlanta lesbian bar, on February 21, 1997, injuring five and an abortion clinic in Birmingham, Alabama on January 29, 1998, killing Birmingham police officer and part-time clinic security guard Robert Sanderson and critically injuring nurse Emily Lyons.

Post-2001

As of June 2015, right-wing attacks since the September 11 attacks (9/11) had claimed more lives (48) than attacks committed by jihadists (26).[38] Thereafter, jihadist terrorist attacks (the 2015 San Bernardino attack and the 2016 Orlando nightclub shooting) raised the Islamic extremist death toll above that caused by right-wing extremists. As of July 2016, the New America Foundation placed the number killed in terrorist attacks in the U.S. (since 9/11) as follows: 94 killed in jihadist terrorist attacks, 50 killed in far-right attacks, and 5 killed in far-left attacks.[39]

New America's tally shows 21 instances of right-wing terrorist attacks causing 53 fatalities since September 11, 2001. These were:[39]

Other recent events include:

According to the Government Accountability Office of the United States, 73% of violent extremist incidents that resulted in deaths since September 12, 2001 were caused by right wing extremists groups.[41][42]

Europe

France

Neo-Nazi members of the French and European Nationalist Party were responsible for a pair of anti-Muslim terror bombings in 1988. Sonacotra hostels in Cagnes-sur-Mer and Cannes were bombed, killing Romanian immigrant George Iordachescu and injuring 16 people, mostly Tunisians.

In an attempt to frame Jewish extremists for the Cagnes-sur-Mer bombing, the terrorists left leaflets bearing Stars of David and the name Masada at the scene, with the message "To destroy Israel, Islam has chosen the sword. For this choice, Islam will perish."[43]

In 2015, in the aftermath of the Charlie Hebdo shooting, six mosques and a restaurant were attacked in acts deemed as right-wing terrorism by authorities.[44] The acts included grenade throwing, shooting, and use of an improvised explosive device.

Germany

In 1980, a right-wing terrorist attack in Munich, Germany killed the attacker and 14 other people, injuring 215. Fears of an ongoing campaign of major right-wing terrorist attacks did not materialize.[1]

In addition to several bank robberies, the German National Socialist Underground was responsible for the Bosphorus serial murders (2000–2006), the 2004 Cologne bombing and the murder of policewoman Michéle Kiesewetter in 2007. In November 2011, two members of the National Socialist Underground committed suicide after a bank robbery and a third member was arrested some days later.

Right-wing extremist offenses in Germany rose sharply in 2015 and 2016.[45] Figures from the German government tallied 316 violent xenophobic offences in 2014 and 612 such offenses in 2015.[45]

In August 2014, a group of four Germans founded a Munich-based far-right terrorist group, the Oldschool Society. The group, which held racist, antisemitic, and anti-Muslim views, eventually attracted 30 members.[46] They stockpiled weapons and explosives and plotted to attack a refugee shelter in Saxony,[46] but the group's leaders were arrested in May 2015 before carrying out the attack.[47] In March 2017 four of the group's leaders were sentenced to prison terms.[46] The perpetrator of the 2016 Munich shooting also had far-right views.

Italy

In the 1970s and 1980s, Italy endured the Years of Lead, a period characterized by frequent terrorist attacks from both the far-left and the far-right. between 1969 and 1982, the nation suffered 8,800 terrorist attacks, in which a total of 351 people were killed and 768 were injured.[48] Right-wing terrorism was dominant in Italy from 1969 to 1974, while left-wing terrorism was dominant in the late 1970s.[48] The Years of Lead are considered to have begun with the Piazza Fontana bombing in Milan in December 1969,[48] perpetrated by Ordine Nuovo, a right-wing neofascist group.[49] Sixteen people were killed, and 90 injured, in the bombing.[49]

Ordine Nuovo continued its campaign of terror until the mid-1980s. In July 1970, the group carried out a bombing on a train going from Rome to Messina, killing six and wounding almost 100. The group also carried out the Piazza della Loggia bombing in 1974, killing eight antifascist activists.[49] Perhaps the most infamous right-wing terrorist attack in post-war Italy is the August 1980 Bologna bombing, in which neo-fascist Nuclei Armati Rivoluzionari ("Armed Revolutionary Nuclei"), an Ordine Nuovo offshoot, killed 85 people and injured 200 at the Bologna railroad station.[49][50] Valerio Fioravanti, Francesca Mambro, and two others were convicted of mass murder in the attacks,[50] although both have always denied any connection with the attacks.[51][52]

In December 2011, a far-right gunman targeted Senegalese traders in Florence, killing two and injuring three others before killing himself.[53][54] The perpetrator was associated with CasaPound,[53][54] a neo-fascist organization that perpetrates political violence.[54][55]

Norway

On July 22, 2011, Norwegian right-wing extremist with Nazi[56][57] and fascist[58] sympathies, Anders Behring Breivik, carried out the 2011 Norway attacks, the largest mass killing of people in Norway by a single person during peacetime, excluding use of bombs. First he bombed several government buildings in Oslo, killing eight people and injuring more than 30. After the bombings, he went to Utøya island in a fake police uniform and began firing on people attending a political youth camp for the Worker's Youth League (AUF), a left-wing political party, killing 68 and injuring more than 60.

Poland

Despite the country being nearly ethnically and religiously homogenous, Polish far-right targets, via propaganda or physical violence, religious and ethnic minorities such as Jews, Romani people, people with darker complexion or Middle Eastern appearance. In 1991, an anti-Romani pogrom broke out in Mława. During the UEFA Euro 2012, Polish hooligans targeted random Russian football supporters. There have been reports of hate crimes targeting Muslim minority in Poland. Far-right and right-wing populist political parties and organizations fuel fear and hatred towards Islam and Muslims.[59] Hate crimes such as arson and physical violence have occurred in Poland (despite having a Muslim population of only 0.1%, that is 30,000 out of 38 million).[60][61] In 2016, police arrested a man who they say tried to burn down a mosque in Gdansk.[44] The man belonged to the neo-nazi group called Blood & Honour.

Sweden

Both the 2009–10 Malmö shootings and the Trollhättan school attack were conducted by right-wing terrorists along with a refugee centre bombing in 2017. A notable serial killer motivated by far-right motives is John Ausonius.[62]

United Kingdom

In April 1999, David Copeland, a neo-Nazi, planted a series of nail bombs over 13 days, causing explosions in Brixton, Brick Lane (in east London), and Soho (in central London). His attacks, which were aimed at London's black, Bangladeshi and gay communities, resulted in three dead and more than 100 injured.[63] Copeland was a former member of two far right political groups, the British National Party (BNP) and the National Socialist Movement. Copeland told police, "My aim was political. It was to cause a racial war in this country. There'd be a backlash from the ethnic minorities, then all the white people will go out and vote BNP."[64]

In July 2007, Robert Cottage, a former BNP member, was convicted for possessing explosive chemicals in his home – described by police at the time of his arrest as the largest amount of chemical explosive of its type ever found in that country.[65] In June 2008, Martyn Gilleard, a British Nazi sympathizer, was jailed after police found nail bombs, bullets, swords, axes and knives in his flat.[66] Also in 2008, Nathan Worrell was found guilty of possession of material for terrorist purposes and racially aggravated harassment. He was described by anti-terror police as a "dangerous individual". The court heard that police found books and manuals containing "recipes" to make bombs and detonators using household items, such as weedkiller, at Worrell's flat.[67] In July 2009, Neil Lewington was planning on waging a terror campaign using weapons made from tennis balls and weedkiller against those he classified as "non British".[68]

In 2012, the British Home Affairs Committee warned of the threat of far right terrorism in the UK, claiming it had heard "persuasive evidence" about the potential danger and cited the growth of similar threats across Europe.[69]

Members of Combat 18 (C18), a neo-Nazi organisation based on the concept of "leaderless resistance", have been suspected in numerous deaths of immigrants, non-whites and other C18 members.[70] Between 1998 and 2000, dozens of members were arrested.[71][72] A group calling itself the Racial Volunteer Force split from C18 in 2002, retaining close links to its parent organization.[73] Some journalists believed that the White Wolves were a C18 splinter group, alleging that the group had been set up by Del O'Connor, the former second-in-command of C18 and member of Skrewdriver Security.[74] C18 attacks on immigrants continued through 2009.[75] Weapons, ammunition and explosives were seized by police in the UK and almost every country in which C18 was active.

In 2016, Jo Cox, the Member of Parliament (MP) for the Batley and Spen constituency was murdered by Thomas Mair, who was motivated by far-right political views and had connections to several far-right organisations in the UK, US, and South Africa.[76]

On 16 December 2016 Home Secretary Amber Rudd designated the far-right, neo-Nazi National Action group as a terrorist organisation which criminalises membership or support for the organisation.[77]

Northern Ireland

British far-right activists supplied funds and weaponry to Loyalist terrorist groups in Northern Ireland during the Troubles.[78] Following the Good Friday Agreement some members of Loyalist groups orchestrated racist attacks in Northern Ireland,[79][80][81] including pipe bomb and gun attacks on the homes of immigrants.[82][83][84][85][86] As a result, Northern Ireland has a higher proportion of racist attacks than other parts of the UK,[81][87] and was branded the "race-hate capital of Europe".[88]

Oceania

Australia

In August 2016 Phillip Galea was charged with several terrorist offences. Galea had conducted "surveillance" of "left-wing premises" and planned to carry out bombings. Explosive ingredients were found at his home. Galea had links with organisations such as Combat 18 and the United Patriots Front.[89] In 2017 the Sydney Morning Herald reported on the conviction of neo-Nazi Michael James Holt, 26 who had threatened to carry out a mass shooting attack and considered Westfield Tuggerah as a target. He had manufactured home-made guns, knuckle dusters and slingshots in his grandfather's garage. Raids on his mothers home and a hotel room discovered more weapons including several firearms, slingshots and knuckle dusters.[90]

See also

Notes

  1. 1 2 3 Aubrey 2004, p. 45.
  2. ↑ Moghadam & Eubank 2006, p. 57.
  3. ↑ Moghadam & Eubank 2006, pp. 57-58.
  4. ↑ Moghadam & Eubank 2006, p. 58.
  5. ↑ Smith, David (7 May 2010). "South African police foil white extremist bomb plot" – via The Guardian.
  6. ↑ "Brasileiros magazine".
  7. ↑ "Fatos magazine" (PDF). June 1, 1985.
  8. 1 2 Constanza Vieira (August 27, 2008). "International Criminal Court Scrutinises Paramilitary Crimes". Inter Press Service. Archived from the original on June 10, 2011.
  9. ↑ Rempe, Dennis M. (Winter 1995). "Guerrillas, Bandits, and Independent Republics: US Counter-insurgency Efforts in Colombia 1959–1965". Small Wars and Insurgencies. 6 (3): 304–27. doi:10.1080/09592319508423115. Archived from the original on March 30, 2010.
  10. ↑ Rempe, 1995 Archived March 30, 2010, at the Wayback Machine.
  11. ↑ Livingstone 2003, p. 155.
  12. ↑ HRW, 1996: "III: The Intelligence Reorganization"
  13. ↑ Schulte-Bockholt, Alfredo (2006). The Politics of Organized Crime and the Organized Crime of Politics: a study in criminal power. Lexington. p. 95.
  14. ↑ Marc Chernick (March–April 1998). "The paramilitarization of the war in Colombia". NACLA Report on the Americas. 31 (5): 28.
  15. ↑ Brittain & Petras 2010, pp. 129–31.
  16. ↑ Forrest Hylton (2006). Evil Hour in Colombia. Verso. pp. 68–69. ISBN 978-1-84467-551-7.
  17. ↑ Michael Taussig (2004). Law in a Lawless Land: Diary of limpieza in Colombia. New Press.
  18. ↑ Elizabeth F. Schwartz (Winter 1995–1996). "Getting Away with Murder: Social Cleansing in Colombia and the Role of the United States". The University of Miami Inter-American Law Review. 27 (2): 381–420.
  19. ↑ Lovisa Stannow (1996) "Social cleansing" in Colombia, MA Thesis, Simon Fraser University
  20. ↑ Alfredo Molano (2005). The Dispossessed: Chronicles of the desterrados of Colombia. Haymarket. p. 113.
  21. ↑ Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada, "Colombia: Activities of a Colombian social cleansing group known as 'Jóvenes del Bien' and any state efforts to deal with it", 2 April 2004
  22. ↑ Brittain & Petras 2010, pp. 132–35.
  23. ↑ William Avilés (May 2006). "Paramilitarism and Colombia's Low-Intensity Democracy". Journal of Latin American Studies. 38 (2): 380.
  24. ↑ Feldmann, Andreas E.; Maiju Perälä (July 2004). "Reassessing the Causes of Nongovernmental Terrorism in Latin America". Latin American Politics and Society. 46 (2): 101–132. doi:10.1111/j.1548-2456.2004.tb00277.x.
  25. ↑ Gary LaFree; Laura Dugan; Erin Miller (2014). Putting Terrorism in Context: Lessons from the Global Terrorism Database. Routledge. p. 56. ISBN 1134712413.
  26. ↑ Schenk, David H. (April 30, 2014). "Freedmen with Firearms: White Terrorism and Black Disarmament During Reconstruction". Gettysburg College Journal of the Civil War Era. 4.
  27. ↑ Butchart, Ronald E. "Black hope, white power: emancipation, reconstruction and the legacy of unequal schooling in the US South, 1861–1880." Paedagogica historica 46.1-2 (2010): 33–50.
  28. ↑ Michael 2003, p. 114.
  29. ↑ International Foundation for Protection Officers. 2003. The Protection Officer Training Manual. Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 0-750-67456-3.
  30. ↑ Choueiri, Youssef M. 2010. Islamic Fundamentalism: The Story of Islamist Movements. Continuum International Publishing Group. ISBN 0-826-49801-9.
  31. ↑ Smith 1994, pp. 25–26.
  32. ↑ "Free the Order Rally". Southern Poverty Law Center. Spring 2007. Retrieved 2007-08-17.
  33. ↑ "Death List Names Given to US Jury". New York Times. September 17, 1985. Retrieved 2007-08-25.
  34. ↑ Morris Dees and Steve Fiffer. Hate on Trial: The Case Against America's Most Dangerous Neo-Nazi. Villard Books, 1993. p. xiiv
  35. ↑ Michael 2003, p. 107.
  36. ↑ "McVeigh offers little remorse in letters". The Topeka Capital-Journal. Associated Press. June 10, 2001. Archived from the original on February 27, 2011.
  37. ↑ "Full Text of Eric Rudolph's Confession".
  38. ↑ Joanna Plucinska (June 25, 2016). "Study: White Extremists More Dangerous Than Islamists Since 9/11". Time.
  39. 1 2 "In Depth: Terrorism in America After 9/11: Part IV. What is the Threat to the United States Today? (click Dataset, then "terror_plots.csv")". New America Foundation. Retrieved January 12, 2017.
  40. ↑ "'You are safe,' Transylvania attacker says to Republican student in coffee shop". kentucky. Retrieved 2017-06-15.
  41. ↑ "GAO-17-300, COUNTERING VIOLENT EXTREMISM: Actions Needed to Define Strategy and Assess Progress of Federal Efforts." U.S. Government Accountability Office (GAO). Government Accountability Office, 6 Apr. 2017. Web. 4 June 2017.
  42. ↑ Eddington, Patrick G. "GAO Weighs In On "Countering Violent Extremism"." Cato Institute. N.p., 13 Apr. 2017. Web. 04 June 2017.
  43. ↑ Greenhouse, Steven (20 December 1988). "Immigrant Hostel Bombed in France". New York Times. Retrieved 20 October 2014.
  44. 1 2 "EUROPEAN UNION TERRORISM SITUATION AND TREND REPORT (TE-SAT) 2016". Europol. 2016. p. 41.
  45. 1 2 Carla Bleiker, Sharp rise in right-wing crime in Germany just 'the tip of the iceberg', Deutsche Welle (February 11, 2016).
  46. 1 2 3 Associated Press, Four jailed in Germany for forming far-right terrorist group (March 15, 2017).
  47. ↑ Kate Brady, 'Oldschool Society' neo-Nazis go on trial for refugee home attacks, Deutsche Welle (April 27, 2016).
  48. 1 2 3 Tobias Hof, "The Success of Italian Anti-terrorism Policy" in An International History of Terrorism: Western and Non-Western Experiences (editors Jussi M. Hanhimäki & Bernhard Blumenau: Routledge, 2013), p. 100.
  49. 1 2 3 4 Richard McHugh, "Ordine Nuovo" in The SAGE Encyclopedia of Terrorism, 2d ed. (editor Gus Martin: SAGE Publications, 2011), pp. 451-52.
  50. 1 2 Four Convicted of Mass Murder in Italian Bombing that Killed 85, Associated Press (July 11, 1988).
  51. ↑ Anna Cento Bull & Philip Cooke, Ending Terrorism in Italy (Routledge, 2013), pp. 141-42.
  52. ↑ Anne Hanley, The accidental terrorist, Independent (May 5, 1997).
  53. 1 2 "Viewpoint: Killer Breivik's links with far right". BBC News. August 27, 2012.
  54. 1 2 3 Kington, Tom (December 23, 2011). "Ezra Pound's daughter aims to stop Italian fascist group using father's name". The Guardian. London.
  55. ↑ Pietro Castelli Gattinara & Caterina Froio, Discourse and Practice of Violence in the Italian Extreme Right: Frames, Symbols, and Identity-Building in CasaPound Italia, International Journal of Conflict and Violence, Vol. 8, No. 1 (2015), doi:10.4119/UNIBI/ijcv.339.
  56. ↑ Leif Stang (18 April 2012). "Close to Nazism". Dagbladet (in Norwegian).
  57. ↑ Daniel Vergara (10 January 2014). "Breivik vill deportera "illojala judar"". Expo Idag (in Swedish).
  58. ↑ Eva-Therese Grøttum; Marianne Vikås (10 May 2013). "Breivik seeks to start the fascist party". VG Nett (in Norwegian).
  59. ↑ Hume, Tim (9 May 2017). "Poland's populist government let far-right extremism explode into mainstream" – via news.vice.com.
  60. ↑ "Why are Polish people so wrong about Muslims in their country?". openDemocracy. 13 January 2017.
  61. ↑ "European Islamophobia Report" (PDF). SETA. 2015.
  62. ↑ "Donald Trump is right, there was a recent attack in Sweden. By neo-Nazis on a refugee centre". 19 February 2017.
  63. ↑ Buncombe, Andrew; Judd, Terri; and Bennett, Jason. "'Hate-filled' nailbomber is jailed for life", The Independent, 30 June 2000.
  64. ↑ "The Nailbomber", BBC Panorama, 30 June 2000.
  65. ↑ "Know your enemy".
  66. ↑ "Man guilty over nail bombs plot". BBC News. June 24, 2008.
  67. ↑ "Racist who had bomb kit jailed for campaign against couple". The Guardian. London. December 13, 2008.
  68. ↑ "Man 'on cusp' of bombing campaign". BBC News. June 29, 2009.
  69. ↑ "Home Affairs Committee warns of far-right terror threat". BBC News. February 6, 2012.
  70. ↑ "Ex-Combat 18 man speaks out". BBC News. 25 November 2001.
  71. ↑ "MI5 swoops on Army 'neo-Nazis'", Sunday Telegraph, 7 March 1999
  72. ↑ BNP Under the skin: Profile of Adrian Marsden, BBC News
  73. ↑ "Combat 18" at www.metareligion.com
  74. ↑ Stuart Millar, "Anti-terror police seek White Wolf racist over bombs"
  75. ↑ "Belfast racists threaten to cut Romanian baby's throat", Belfast Telegraph, 17 June 2009
  76. ↑ Ian Cobain and Matthew Taylor, Far-right terrorist Thomas Mair jailed for life for Jo Cox murder, Guardian (November 23, 2017).
  77. ↑ Elgot, Jessica (12 December 2016). "Neo-Nazi group National Action banned by UK home secretary" – via The Guardian.
  78. ↑ Goodrick-Clarke, Nicholas (1 July 2003). Black Sun: Aryan Cults, Esoteric Nazism, and the Politics of Identity. NYU Press. pp. 40–41, 45. ISBN 978-0-8147-3155-0.
  79. ↑ "UVF 'behind racist attacks in south and east Belfast'". Belfast Telegraph, 3 April 2014.
  80. ↑ Chrisafis, Angelique. "Racist war of the loyalist street gangs". The Guardian, 10 January 2004.
  81. 1 2 "Race hate on rise in NI". BBC News, 13 January 2004.
  82. ↑ "Two arrested over racist pipe bomb attacks in Londonderry". BBC News, 10 March 2014.
  83. ↑ "Loyalists hit out at racist attacks". BBC News, 3 July 2003.
  84. ↑ "Police probe after bomb attacks". BBC News, 2 June 2005.
  85. ↑ "Mother of South Belfast racist attack to leave home". Belfast Daily. 25 May 2013.
  86. ↑ "Gun attack: Family at home during 'hate crime' in west Belfast". BBC News, 24 April 2014.
  87. ↑ "Bitter tide of violent racial hate recalls the worst of the Troubles". Irish Independent, 8 August 2004.
  88. ↑ "Ulster 'is race hate capital of Europe'". BreakingNews.ie. 26 June 2006.
  89. ↑ Press, Australian Associated (31 October 2016). "Victorian extremist Phillip Galea planned to bomb leftwing premises, police say" – via The Guardian.
  90. ↑ Olding, Rachel (28 January 2017). "White supremacist threatened to shoot up Central Coast shopping centre" – via The Sydney Morning Herald.

References

Further reading

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