Postpartum depression

Postpartum depression
Synonyms Postnatal depression
Specialty Psychiatry
Symptoms Extreme sadness, low energy, anxiety, changes in sleeping or eating patterns, crying episodes, irritability[1]
Usual onset Week to month after childbirth[1]
Causes Unclear[1]
Risk factors Prior postpartum depression, bipolar disorder, family history of depression, psychological stress, complications of childbirth, lack of support, drug use disorder[1]
Diagnostic method Based on symptoms[2]
Similar conditions Baby blues[1]
Treatment Counselling, medications[2]
Frequency ~15% of births[1]

Postpartum depression (PPD), also called postnatal depression, is a type of mood disorder associated with childbirth which can affect both sexes.[1][3] Symptoms may include extreme sadness, low energy, anxiety, changes in sleeping or eating patterns, crying episodes, and irritability.[1] Onset is typically between one week and one month following childbirth.[1] The condition can also negatively affect the person's child.[2]

While the exact cause of PPD is unclear it is believed to be due to a combination of physical and emotional factors.[1] These may include hormonal changes and sleep deprivation.[1] Risk factors include prior episodes of postpartum depression, bipolar disorder, family history of depression, psychological stress, complications of childbirth, lack of support, or a drug use disorder.[1] Diagnosis is based on a person's symptoms.[2] While most women experience a brief period of worry or unhappiness after delivery, postpartum depression should be suspected when symptoms are severe and last over two weeks.[1]

Among those at risk, providing psychosocial support may be protective.[4] Treatment may include counselling or medications.[2] Types of counselling that have been found to be effective include interpersonal psychotherapy, cognitive behavioral therapy, and psychodynamic therapy.[2] Tentative evidence supports the use of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs).[2]

About 15% of women experience depression around childbirth.[1] Postpartum psychosis occurs in about 1–2 per thousand women following childbirth.[5] Postpartum depression is estimated to affect 1% to 26% of new fathers.[3] Postpartum psychosis is one of the leading causes of the murder of children less than one year of age, which occurs in about 8 per 100,000 births in the United States.[2][6]

Signs and symptoms

Symptoms of PPD can occur any time in the first year postpartum.[7] Typically, postpartum depression is considered after signs and symptoms persist for at least two weeks.[8] These symptoms include, but are not limited to:

Emotional

Behavioral

Cognition

Onset and duration

Postpartum depression usually begins between two weeks to a month after delivery.[11] Recent studies have shown that fifty percent of postpartum depressive episodes actually begin prior to delivery.[12] Therefore, in the DSM-5, postpartum depression is diagnosed under "depressive disorder with peripartum onset", in which "peripartum onset" is defined as anytime either during pregnancy or within the four weeks following delivery. PPD may last several months or even a year.[13] Postpartum depression can also occur in women who have suffered a miscarriage.[14]

Parent-infant relationship

Postpartum depression can interfere with normal maternal-infant bonding and adversely affect child development. Postpartum depression may lead mothers to be inconsistent with childcare.[15]

In rare cases, or about 1 to 2 per 1,000, the postpartum depression appears as postpartum psychosis.[5] In these, or among women with a history of previous psychiatric hospital admissions,[16] infanticide may occur. In the United States, postpartum depression is one of the leading causes of annual reported infanticide incidence rate of about 8 per 100,000 births.[2]

Causes

The cause of PPD is not well understood. Hormonal changes, genetics, and major life events have been hypothesized as potential causes.

Evidence suggests that hormonal changes may play a role. Hormones which have been studied include estrogen, progesterone, thyroid hormone, testosterone, corticotropin releasing hormone, and cortisol.[17]

Fathers, who are not undergoing profound hormonal changes, can also have postpartum depression.[18] The cause may be distinct in males.

Profound lifestyle changes that are brought about by caring for the infant are also frequently hypothesized to cause PPD. However, little evidence supports this hypothesis. Mothers who have had several previous children without suffering PPD can nonetheless suffer it with their latest child.[19] Despite the biological and psychosocial changes that may accompany pregnancy and the post-partum period, most women are not diagnosed with PPD.[20][21]

Risk factors

While the causes of PPD are not understood, a number of factors have been suggested to increase the risk:

Of these risk factors, formula-feeding, a history of depression, and cigarette smoking have been shown to have additive effects.[23]

These above factors are known to correlate with PPD. This correlation does not mean these factors are causal. Rather, they might both be caused by some third factor. Contrastingly, some factors almost certainly attribute to the cause of postpartum depression, such as lack of social support.[26]

Not surprisingly, women with fewer resources indicate a higher level of postpartum depression and stress than those women with more financial resources. Rates of PPD have been shown to decrease as income increases.[27] Women with fewer resources may be more likely to have an unintended or unwanted pregnancy, increasing risk of PPD. Single mothers of low income may have fewer resources to which they have access while transitioning into motherhood.

Studies have also shown a correlation between a mother's race and postpartum depression. For race, African American mothers have been shown to have the highest risk of PPD at 25%, while Asians had the lowest at 11.5%, after controlling for social factors such as age, income, education, marital status, and baby's health. The PPD rates for First Nations, Caucasian and Hispanic women fell in between.[27]

Sexual orientation[28] has also been studied as a risk factor for PPD. In a 2007 study conducted by Ross and colleagues, lesbian and bisexual mothers were tested for PPD and then compared with a heterosexual sample. It was found that lesbian and bisexual biological mothers had significantly higher Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale scores than did the heterosexual women in the sample.[29] These higher rates of PPD in lesbian/bisexual mothers may reflect less social support, particularly from their families of origin and additional stress due to homophobic discrimination in society.[30]

A correlation between postpartum thyroiditis and postpartum depression has been proposed but remains controversial. There may also be a link between postpartum depression and anti-thyroid antibodies.[31]

Violence

A meta-analysis reviewing research on the association of violence and postpartum depression showed that violence against women increases the incidence of postpartum depression.[32] About one-third of women throughout the world will experience physical and/or sexual violence at some point in their lives.[33] Violence against women occurs in conflict, post-conflict, and non-conflict areas.[33] It is important to note that the research reviewed only looked at violence experienced by women from male perpetrators, but did not consider violence inflicted on men or women by women. Further, violence against women was defined as "any act of gender-based violence that results in, or is likely to result in, physical, sexual, or psychological harm or suffering to women".[32] Psychological and cultural factors associated with increased incidence of postpartum depression include family history of depression, stressful life events during early puberty or pregnancy, anxiety or depression during pregnancy, and low social support.[29][32] Violence against women is a chronic stressor, so depression may occur when someone is no longer able to respond to the violence.[32]

Diagnosis

Criteria

Postpartum depression in the DSM-5 is known as "depressive disorder with peripartum onset". Peripartum onset is defined as starting anytime during pregnancy or within the four weeks following delivery. There is no longer a distinction made between depressive episodes that occur during pregnancy or those that occur after delivery.[34] Nevertheless, the majority of experts continue to diagnose postpartum depression as depression with onset anytime within the first year after delivery.[24]

The criteria required for the diagnosis of postpartum depression are the same as those required to make a diagnosis of non-childbirth related major depression or minor depression. The criteria include at least five of the following nine symptoms, within a two-week period:[34]

Differential diagnosis

Postpartum blues

Postpartum blues, commonly known as "baby blues" is a transient postpartum mood disorder characterized by milder depressive symptoms than postpartum depression. This type of depression can occur in up to 80% of all mothers following delivery.[35] Symptoms typically resolve within two weeks. Symptoms lasting longer than two weeks are a sign of more serious depression.[36]

Psychosis

Postpartum psychosis is not a formal diagnosis, but is widely used to describe a psychiatric emergency that appears to occur in about 1 in a 1000 pregnancies, in which symptoms of high mood and racing thoughts (mania), depression, severe confusion, loss of inhibition, paranoia, hallucinations and delusions set in begin suddenly in the first two weeks after delivery; the symptoms vary and can change quickly.[37] It is different from postpartum depression and from maternity blues.[38] It may be a form of bipolar disorder.[39]

About half of women who experience it have no risk factors; but a prior history of mental illness, especially bipolar disorder, a history of prior episodes of postpartum psychosis, or a family history, are at a higher risk.[37]

It often requires hospitalization, where treatment is antipsychotic medication, mood stabilizers, and in cases of strong risk for suicide, electroconvulsive therapy.[37]

The most severe symptoms last from 2 to 12 weeks, and recovery takes 6 months to a year.[37] Women who have been hospitalized for a psychiatric condition immediately after delivery are at a much higher risk of suicide during the first year after delivery.[40]

Screening

In the US, the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists suggests healthcare providers consider depression screening for perinatal women.[41] Additionally, the American Academy of Pediatrics recommends pediatricians screen mothers for PPD at 1-month, 2-month and 4-month visits.[42] However, many providers do not consistently provide screening and appropriate follow-up.[41] For example, in Canada, Alberta is the only province with universal PPD screening. This screening is carried out by Public Health nurses with the baby's immunization schedule.

The Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale, a standardized self-reported questionnaire, may be used to identify women who have postpartum depression.[43] If the new mother scores 13 or more, she likely has PPD and further assessment should follow.[43]

Prevention

A 2013 Cochrane review found evidence that psychosocial or psychological intervention after childbirth helped reduce the risk of postnatal depression.[44][45] These interventions included home visits, telephone-based peer support, and interpersonal psychotherapy.[44] Support is an important aspect of prevention, as depressed mothers commonly state that their feelings of depression were brought on by "lack of support" and "feeling isolated."[46]

A major part of prevention is being informed about the risk factors, and the medical community can play a key role in identifying and treating postpartum depression. Women should be screened by their physician to determine their risk for acquiring postpartum depression. Also, proper exercise and nutrition appear to play a role in preventing postpartum, and depressed mood in general.

Treatment

A variety of treatment options exist for PPD, and treatment may include a combination of therapies. If the cause of PPD can be identified, treatment should be aimed accordingly. If a woman with PPD does not feel she is being taken seriously, or is being recommended a treatment plan with which she is not comfortable, she may wish to seek a second opinion.[7]

Non-medication therapy

Both individual social and psychological interventions appear effective in the treatment of PPD.[47] Other forms of therapy, such as group therapy and home visits, are also effective treatments.[7] Internet-based cognitive behavioral therapy has been developed and tested, and has shown promising results with lower negative parenting behavior scores in those who participated. It is unclear if acupuncture, massage, bright lights, or taking omega-3 fatty acids are useful.[48]

Medication

There is evidence which suggests that selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are effective treatment for PPD.[49] However, the quality of the evidence is low given it is based on very few studies and patients. It remains unclear which antidepressants are most effective for treatment of PPD, and for whom antidepressants would be a better option than non-pharmacotherapy.[49] A recent study has found that adding sertraline, a specific SSRI, to psychotherapy does not appear to confer an additional benefit.[50]

Epidemiology

Postpartum depression is found across the globe, with rates varying from 11% to 42%.[51]

Society and culture

Malay culture holds a belief in Hantu Meroyan; a spirit that resides in the placenta and amniotic fluid.[52] When this spirit is unsatisfied and venting resentment, it causes the mother to experience frequent crying, loss of appetite, and trouble sleeping, known collectively as "sakit meroyan". The mother can be cured with the help of a shaman, who performs a séance to force the spirits to leave.[53] Some cultures believe that the symptoms of postpartum depression or similar illnesses can be avoided through protective rituals in the period after birth. Chinese women participate in a ritual that is known as "doing the month" (confinement) in which they spend the first 30 days after giving birth resting in bed, while the mother or mother-in-law takes care of domestic duties and childcare. In addition, the new mother is not allowed to bathe or shower, wash her hair, clean her teeth, leave the house, or be blown by the wind.[54]

The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act included a section focusing on research into postpartum conditions including postpartum depression.[55]

See also

References

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  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Pearlstein, T; Howard, M; Salisbury, A; Zlotnick, C (April 2009). "Postpartum depression.". American journal of obstetrics and gynecology. 200 (4): 357–64. PMID 19318144.
  3. 1 2 Paulson, James F. (2010). "Focusing on depression in expectant and new fathers: prenatal and postpartum depression not limited to mothers". Psychiatry Times. 27 (2).
  4. ↑ "Perinatal Depression: Prevalence, Screening Accuracy, and Screening Outcomes". Agency for Health Care Research and Quality.
  5. 1 2 Seyfried, LS; Marcus, SM (August 2003). "Postpartum mood disorders.". International review of psychiatry (Abingdon, England). 15 (3): 231–42. PMID 15276962.
  6. ↑ Spinelli, MG (September 2004). "Maternal infanticide associated with mental illness: prevention and the promise of saved lives.". The American Journal of Psychiatry. 161 (9): 1548–57. PMID 15337641. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.161.9.1548.
  7. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 The Boston Women's Health Book Collective: Our Bodies Ourselves, pages 489–491, New York: Touchstone Book, 2005
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  9. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 "Depression Among Women | Depression | Reproductive Health | CDC". www.cdc.gov. Retrieved 2017-04-15.
  10. ↑ Morof D, Barrett G, Peacock J, Victor CR, Manyonda I (December 2003). "Postnatal depression and sexual health after childbirth". Obstet Gynecol. 102 (6): 1318–25. PMID 14662221. doi:10.1016/j.obstetgynecol.2003.08.020.
  11. ↑ Postpartum Depression from Pregnancy Guide, by Peter J. Chen, at Hospital of the University of Pennsylvania. Reviewed last on: 10/22/2008
  12. ↑ Yonkers, KA; Ramin, SM; Rush, AJ; Navarrete, CA; Carmody, T; March, D; Heartwell, SF; Leveno, KJ (November 2001). "Onset and persistence of postpartum depression in an inner-city maternal health clinic system.". The American Journal of Psychiatry. 158 (11): 1856–63. PMID 11691692. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.158.11.1856.
  13. ↑ Canadian Mental Health Association > Post Partum Depression Retrieved on June 13, 2010
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  18. ↑ Goodman JH (January 2004). "Paternal postpartum depression, its relationship to maternal postpartum depression, and implications for family health". J Adv Nurs. 45 (1): 26–35. PMID 14675298. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2648.2003.02857.x.
  19. ↑ Nielsen Forman D, Videbech P, Hedegaard M, Dalby Salvig J, Secher NJ (October 2000). "Postpartum depression: identification of women at risk". BJOG. 107 (10): 1210–7. PMID 11028570. doi:10.1111/j.1471-0528.2000.tb11609.x.
  20. ↑ Paschetta, Elena; Berrisford, Giles; Coccia, Floriana; Whitmore, Jennifer; Wood, Amanda G.; Pretlove, Sam; Ismail, Khaled M.K. (2014). "Perinatal psychiatric disorders: an overview". American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology. 210 (6): 501–509.e6. doi:10.1016/j.ajog.2013.10.009.
  21. ↑ Howard, Louise M; Molyneaux, Emma; Dennis, Cindy-Lee; Rochat, Tamsen; Stein, Alan; Milgrom, Jeannette (2014). "Non-psychotic mental disorders in the perinatal period". The Lancet. 384 (9956): 1775–1788. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(14)61276-9.
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  26. ↑ The causal role of lack of social support in PPD is strongly suggested by several studies, including O'Hara 1985, Field et al. 1985; and Gotlib et al. 1991.
  27. 1 2 Segre, Lisa S.; O'Hara, Michael W.; Losch, Mary E. (2006). "Race/ethnicity and perinatal depressed mood". Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psychology. 24 (2): 99–106. doi:10.1080/02646830600643908.
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  29. 1 2 Ross, Lori E.; Dennis, Cindy-Lee (2009). "The Prevalence of Postpartum Depression among Women with Substance Use, an Abuse History, or Chronic Illness: A Systematic Review". Journal of Women's Health. 18 (4): 475–486. doi:10.1089/jwh.2008.0953.
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  31. ↑ Williams Obstetrics. ISBN 9780071793278.
  32. 1 2 3 4 Wu, Qian; Chen, Hong-Lin; Xu, Xu-Juan (2014-04-01). "Violence as a Risk Factor for Postpartum Depression in Mothers: A Meta-Analysis". Archives of Women's Mental Health. 15 (2): 107–114. doi:10.1007/s00737-011-0248-9.
  33. 1 2 Western, Deborah (2013-01-01). A Conceptual and Contextual Background for Gender-Based Violence and Depression in Women. New York: Springer New York. pp. 13–22. ISBN 978-1-4614-7531-6. doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-7532-3_3.
  34. 1 2 Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Association. 2013.
  35. ↑ http://www.webmd.com/depression/postpartum-depression/understanding-postpartum-depression-basics
  36. ↑ Wisner, KL; Parry, BL; Piontek, CM (18 July 2002). "Clinical practice. Postpartum depression.". The New England Journal of Medicine. 347 (3): 194–9. PMID 12124409. doi:10.1056/NEJMcp011542.
  37. 1 2 3 4 Jones, I; Chandra, PS; Dazzan, P; Howard, LM (15 November 2014). "Bipolar disorder, affective psychosis, and schizophrenia in pregnancy and the post-partum period.". Lancet. 384 (9956): 1789–99. PMID 25455249. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(14)61278-2.
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  39. ↑ Wesseloo, R; Kamperman, AM; Munk-Olsen, T; Pop, VJ; Kushner, SA; Bergink, V (1 February 2016). "Risk of Postpartum Relapse in Bipolar Disorder and Postpartum Psychosis: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.". The American Journal of Psychiatry. 173 (2): 117–27. PMID 26514657. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2015.15010124.
  40. ↑ Orsolini, L; et al. (12 August 2016). "Suicide during Perinatal Period: Epidemiology, Risk Factors, and Clinical Correlates.". Frontiers in psychiatry. 7: 138. PMC 4981602 Freely accessible. PMID 27570512. doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2016.00138.
  41. 1 2 "Screening for Depression During and After Pregnancy". American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, Committee Opinion. February 2010.
  42. ↑ Earls, MF; Committee on Psychosocial Aspects of Child and Family Health American Academy of, Pediatrics (November 2010). "Incorporating recognition and management of perinatal and postpartum depression into pediatric practice.". Pediatrics. 126 (5): 1032–9. PMID 20974776. doi:10.1542/peds.2010-2348.
  43. 1 2 Cox JL, Holden JM, Sagovsky R (June 1987). "Detection of postnatal depression. Development of the 10-item Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale". Br J Psychiatry. 150 (6): 782–6. PMID 3651732. doi:10.1192/bjp.150.6.782.
  44. 1 2 Dennis CL, Dowswell T (2013). Dennis, Cindy-Lee, ed. "Psychosocial and psychological interventions for preventing postpartum depression". Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2: CD001134. PMID 23450532. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD001134.pub3.
  45. ↑ PubMed Health. "Preventing postnatal depression". National Center for Biotechnology Information. Retrieved 30 May 2013.
  46. ↑ Dennis, C.-L.; Hodnett, E.; Kenton, L.; Weston, J.; Zupancic, J.; Stewart, D. E.; Kiss, A. (2009-01-16). "Effect of peer support on prevention of postnatal depression among high risk women: multisite randomised controlled trial". BMJ. 338: a3064. ISSN 0959-8138. PMC 2628301 Freely accessible. PMID 19147637. doi:10.1136/bmj.a3064.
  47. ↑ Dennis, CL; Hodnett, E (Oct 17, 2007). "Psychosocial and psychological interventions for treating postpartum depression.". The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (4): CD006116. PMID 17943888. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD006116.pub2.
  48. ↑ Dennis, CL; Dowswell, T (Jul 31, 2013). "Interventions (other than pharmacological, psychosocial or psychological) for treating antenatal depression.". The Cochrane database of systematic reviews. 7: CD006795. PMID 23904069. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD006795.pub3.
  49. 1 2 Molyneaux, E; Howard, LM; McGeown, HR; Karia, AM; Trevillion, K (Sep 11, 2014). "Antidepressant treatment for postnatal depression.". The Cochrane database of systematic reviews. 9: CD002018. PMID 25211400. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD002018.pub2.
  50. ↑ McDonagh, MS; Matthews, A; Phillipi, C; Romm, J; Peterson, K; Thakurta, S; Guise, JM (September 2014). "Depression drug treatment outcomes in pregnancy and the postpartum period: a systematic review and meta-analysis.". Obstetrics and gynecology. 124 (3): 526–34. PMID 25004304. doi:10.1097/aog.0000000000000410.
  51. ↑ Ali NS, Ali BS, Azam IS (2009). "Post partum anxiety and depression in peri-urban communities of Karachi, Pakistan: a quasi-experimental study". BMC Public Health. 9: 384. PMC 2768706 Freely accessible. PMID 19821971. doi:10.1186/1471-2458-9-384.
  52. ↑ Laderman, Carol (1987). Wives and midwives : childbirth and nutrition in rural Malaysia (1st pbk. ed.). Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 202. ISBN 9780520060364.
  53. ↑ McElroy, Ann; Townsend, Patricia K., eds. (2009). "Culture, Ecology, and Reproduction". Medical Anthropology in Ecological Perspective. pp. 217–66. ISBN 978-0-7867-2740-7.
  54. ↑ Klainin P, Arthur DG (October 2009). "Postpartum depression in Asian cultures: a literature review". Int J Nurs Stud. 46 (10): 1355–73. PMID 19327773. doi:10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2009.02.012.
  55. ↑ Rhodes, Ann M.; Segre, Lisa S. (6 June 2013). "Perinatal depression: a review of US legislation and law". Archives of Women's Mental Health. 16 (4): 259–270. PMC 3725295 Freely accessible. PMID 23740222. doi:10.1007/s00737-013-0359-6.
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