Pepper spray

Pepper spray
Heat Above Peak
Scoville scale 500,000–15,000,000 SHU

Pepper spray (also known as capsicum spray) is a lachrymatory agent (a chemical compound that irritates the eyes to cause tears, pain, and temporary blindness) used in policing, riot control, crowd control, and self-defense, including defense against dogs and bears.[1][2] Its inflammatory effects cause the eyes to close, taking away vision. This temporary blindness allows officers to more easily restrain subjects and permits people using pepper spray for self-defense an opportunity to escape. Although considered a less-than-lethal agent, it has been deadly in rare cases, and concerns have been raised about a number of deaths where being pepper sprayed may have been a contributing factor.

Components

The active ingredient in pepper spray is capsaicin, which is a chemical derived from the fruit of plants in the Capsicum genus, including chilis. Extraction of oleoresin capsicum (OC) from peppers requires capsicum to be finely ground, from which capsaicin is then extracted using an organic solvent such as ethanol. The solvent is then evaporated, and the remaining waxlike resin is the oleoresin capsicum.

An emulsifier such as propylene glycol is used to suspend OC in water, and pressurized to make it aerosol in pepper spray. High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) is used to measure the amount of capsaicin and major capsaicinoids within pepper sprays.

Determining the strength of different manufacturers of pepper sprays can be confusing and difficult. Statements a company makes about their product strength are not regulated. A method using the capsaicin and related capsaicinoids (CRC) content of the product is unreliable as well, because there are six different types of capsaicinoids, causing different levels of irritation. Manufacturers do not state which particular type of capsaicinoids are used. Personal pepper sprays can range from a low of 0.18% to a high of 3%. Most law enforcement pepper sprays use between 1.3% and 2%. The federal government of the United States has determined that bear attack deterrent sprays must contain at least 1.0% and not more than 2% CRC. CRC does not measure the amount of OC within the formulation. Instead, CRC is the pain-producing component of the OC that produces the burning sensation.

The federal government of the United States makes no mention of Scoville heat units (SHU) or OC in their requirements, only CRC (only for bear attack deterrent sprays). But, there are countries (Italy, Portugal and Spain - see below, under "Legality") and a few states within the US (Michigan with a 10% OC limit) that do mention OC limitations. Some manufacturers may show a very high percentage of OC and, although OC is the active ingredient within the formulation, it does not indicate pepper spray strength. High OC percentage also indicates that a spray has more oil content; which, can possibly use lower grade pepper oils (but, more of it), or lower grade capsaicinoids (within the major CRCs) and also has less ability to soak and penetrate skin than a formula with a less, but higher-quality, pepper oil, because oil has hydrophobic properties.

The OC percentage measures only the amount of chili oil extract contained in the defense spray, not the strength, pungency or effectiveness of the product. Other companies may show a high SHU. The SHU is a measurement of the base resin compound and not what comes out in the aerosol. The rated irritant effect of the resin may be diluted depending on how much of it is put in the can.

Counterparts

There are several counterparts of pepper spray developed and legal to possess in some countries:

Effects

Pepper spray demonstration
US Marines training after being exposed to pepper spray.

Pepper spray is an inflammatory agent. It causes immediate closing of the eyes, difficulty breathing, runny nose, and coughing.[4] The duration of its effects depends on the strength of the spray, but the average full effect lasts around thirty to forty-five minutes, with diminished effects lasting for hours.

The Journal of Investigative Ophthalmology and Visual Science published a study that concluded that single exposure of the eye to OC is harmless, but repeated exposure can result in long-lasting changes in corneal sensitivity. They found no lasting decrease in visual acuity.[5]

The European Parliament Scientific and Technological Options Assessment (STOA) published in 1998 "An Appraisal of Technologies of Political Control"[6] with extensive information on pepper spray and tear gas. They write:

The effects of pepper spray are far more severe, including temporary blindness which lasts from 15–30 minutes, a burning sensation of the skin which lasts from 45 to 60 minutes, upper body spasms which force a person to bend forward and uncontrollable coughing making it difficult to breathe or speak for between 3 and 15 minutes.

For those with asthma, taking other drugs, or subject to restraining techniques that restrict the breathing passages, there is a risk of death. In 1995, the Los Angeles Times reported at least 61 deaths associated with police use of pepper spray since 1990 in the USA.[7] The American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) documented 27 people in police custody who died after exposure to pepper spray in California since 1993.[8][9][10] However, the ACLU report counts any death occurring within hours of exposure to pepper spray. In all 27 cases, the coroners' report listed other factors as the primary cause of death, though in some cases the use of pepper spray may have been a contributing factor.[8]

The US Army concluded, in a 1993 Aberdeen Proving Ground study, that pepper spray could cause "[m]utagenic effects, carcinogenic effects, sensitization, cardiovascular and pulmonary toxicity, neurotoxicity, as well as possible human fatalities. There is a risk in using this product on a large and varied population".[11] However, the pepper spray was widely approved in the US despite the reservations of the US military scientists after it passed FBI tests in 1991. As of 1999, it was in use by more than 2,000 public safety agencies.[12]

The head of the FBI's Less-Than-Lethal Weapons Program at the time of the 1991 study, Special Agent Thomas W. W. Ward, was fired by the FBI and was sentenced to two months in prison for receiving payments from a peppergas manufacturer while conducting and authoring the FBI study that eventually approved pepper spray for FBI use.[10][13][14] Prosecutors said that from December 1989 through 1990, Ward received about $5,000 a month for a total of $57,500, from Luckey Police Products, a Fort Lauderdale, Florida-based company that was a major producer and supplier of pepper spray. The payments were paid through a Florida company owned by Ward's wife.[15]

Pepper spray has been associated with positional asphyxiation of individuals in police custody. There is much debate over the actual "cause" of death in these cases. There have been few controlled clinical studies of the human health effects of pepper spray marketed for police use, and those studies are contradictory. Some studies have found no harmful effects beyond the effects described above.[16]

Direct close-range spray can cause more serious eye irritation by attacking the cornea with a concentrated stream of liquid (the so-called "hydraulic needle" effect). Some brands have addressed this problem by means of an elliptically cone-shaped spray pattern.

Acute response

For individuals not previously exposed to OC effects, the general feelings after being sprayed can be best likened to being "set alight." The initial reaction should the spray be directed at the face, is the completely involuntary closing of the eyes (sometimes described as leading to a disconcerting sensation of the eyelids "bubbling and boiling" as the chemical acts on the skin), an instant sensation of the restriction of the airways and the general feeling of sudden and intense, searing pain about the face, nose, and throat. Coughing almost always follows the initial spray.

Subsequent breaths through the nose or mouth lead to ingestion of the chemical, which feeds the feeling of choking. Police are trained to repeatedly instruct targets to "breathe normally" if they complain of difficulty, as the shock of the exposure can generate considerable panic as opposed to actual physical symptoms.

Treatment

Capsaicin is not soluble in water, and even large volumes of water will not wash it off. In general, victims are encouraged to blink vigorously in order to encourage tears, which will help flush the irritant from the eyes.

A study of five often-recommended treatments for skin pain (Maalox, 2% lidocaine gel, baby shampoo, milk, or water) concluded that:[17]

...there was no significant difference in pain relief provided by five different treatment regimens. Time after exposure appeared to be the best predictor for decrease in pain...

To avoid rubbing the spray into the skin, thereby prolonging the burning sensation, and, in order to not spread the compound to other parts of the body, victims should try to avoid touching affected areas. There are also wipes manufactured[18] for the express purpose of serving to decontaminate someone having received a dose of pepper spray. Many ambulance services and emergency departments use baby shampoo to remove the spray and with generally good effect. Some of the OC and CS will remain in the respiratory system, but a recovery of vision and the coordination of the eyes can be expected within 7 to 15 minutes.[19]

Some "triple-action" pepper sprays also contain "tear gas" (CS gas), which can be neutralized with sodium metabisulfite (Campden tablets, used in homebrewing), though it is not water-soluble either and must be washed off using the same procedure as for pepper spray.

Pepper spray antidotes exist; examples include capsazepine, ruthenium red, and other TRPV1 antagonists.

Usage

Pepper spray typically comes in canisters, which are often small enough to be carried or concealed in a pocket or purse. Pepper spray can also be purchased concealed in items such as rings. There are also pepper spray projectiles available, which can be fired from a paintball gun. It has been used for years against demonstrators. Many such canisters also contain dyes, either visible or UV-reactive, to mark an attacker's skin and/or clothing to enhance identification by police.

Legality

Pepper spray is banned for use in war by Article I.5 of the Chemical Weapons Convention, which bans the use of all riot control agents in warfare whether lethal or less-than-lethal.[20] In the US, when pepper spray is used in the workplace, OSHA requires a pepper spray "Material Safety Data Sheet" (MSDS) be available to all employees.[21]

Asia

Europe

Police, like this Swedish police officer in riot gear at a 2007 demonstration, may use pepper spray to control civilians.

North America

Canada

Pepper spray designed to be used against people is considered a prohibited weapon in Canada. The definition under regulation states "any device designed to be used for the purpose of injuring, immobilizing or otherwise incapacitating any person by the discharge therefrom of (a) tear gas, Mace or other gas, or (b) any liquid, spray, powder or other substance that is capable of injuring, immobilizing or otherwise incapacitating any person" is a prohibited weapon.[43]

Only law enforcement officers may legally carry or possess pepper spray labeled for use on persons. Any similar canister with the labels reading "dog spray" and/or "bear spray" is regulated under the Pest Control Products Act—while legal to be carried by anyone, it is against the law if its use causes "a risk of imminent death or serious bodily harm to another person" or harming the environment and carries a penalty up to a fine of $500,000 and jail time of maximum 3 years.[44] Carrying bear spray in public, without justification, may also lead to charges under the Criminal Code.[45]

United States

As of 2016, pepper spray can be legally purchased and carried in some form in all 50 states. Some states have requirements about age.

South America

Australia

New Zealand

Notable civilian use advocates

In June 2002, West Australian resident Rob Hall was convicted for using a canister of pepper spray to break up an altercation between two guests at his home in Midland. Despite being sentenced to a good behaviour bond and granted a spent conviction order, Hall appealed to the Supreme Court, and Justice Christine Wheeler ruled in Hall's favor, thereby legalising pepper spray in the state on a case-by-case basis for those who are able to show a reasonable excuse.[56][60]

On 14 March 2012, an individual "dressed in black including a black scarf wrapped around his or her face" entered the public gallery of the New South Wales Legislative Council and launched a paper plane into the air in the form of a petition to Police Minister Mike Gallacher calling on the government to allow civilians to carry capsicum spray.[61]

Notable use by law enforcement

References

  1. "Bear Spray Vs. Dogs: How Effective Is It?". Tbotech.com. 2009-07-04. Retrieved 2011-12-02.
  2. "Pepper Spray". Llrmi.com. Retrieved 2011-12-02.
  3. http://www.lawinfochina.com/display.aspx?lib=law&id=12049&CGid=
  4. "Effects Of Pepper Spray". Redhotpepperspray.com. Retrieved 2011-12-02.
  5. "Effects of Oleoresin Capsicum Pepper Spray on Human Corneal Morphology and Sensitivity - Vesaluoma et al. 41 (8): 2138 - Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science". Iovs.org. Retrieved 2011-12-02.
  6. "pg 35" (PDF). Retrieved 2011-12-02.
  7. Los Angeles Times June 18, 1995
  8. 1 2 "Pepper Spray Update: More Fatalities, More Questions". 27 June 2012.
  9. ACLU, Oleoresin Capsicum - Pepper Spray Update, More Fatalities, More Questions, June, 1995, p. 2.
  10. 1 2 "Pepper spray's lethal legacy" in Ottawa Citizen. October 22, 1998, p. A1.
  11. Salem, 1993
  12. Smith CG, Stopford W (1999). "Health hazards of pepper spray". N C Med J. 60 (5): 268–74. PMID 10495655. Archived at web.archive.org
  13. "Former F.B.I. Agent Is Sentenced to Prison", The New York Times. May 20, 1996, p. B8.
  14. "Ex-FBI Agent Pleads Guilty in Conflict-of-Interest Case", The Washington Post. February 13, 1996, p. A12.
  15. "Pepper spray study is tainted", San Francisco Chronicle. May 20, 1996, p. B8.
  16. Reay DT. Forensic pathology, part 1: death in custody. Clinics in Lab Med 1998;18:19–20; Watson WA, Stremel KR, and Westdorp EJ. Oleoresin capsicum (cap-stun) toxicity from aerosol exposures. Ann Pharmacotherapy 1996;30:733–5.
  17. "A Randomized Controlled Trial Comparing Treatment Regimens for Acute Pain for Topical Oleoresin Capsaicin (Pepper Spray) Exposure in Adult Volunteers - Prehospital Emergency Care". Informaworld.com. 2008-09-04. Retrieved 2010-05-30.
  18. Fox Labs: Pepper Spray Manufacturer.
  19. Young, D., Police Marksman Magazine, July/August 1995 Issue.
  20. "Riot Control Agents". Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons. Retrieved 20 November 2011.
  21. "Hazard Communication". US Department of Labor. Retrieved 13 December 2012.
  22. "HK Laws. Chap 238 Firearms and Ammunition Ordinance Section 2". Legislation.gov.hk. 2000-05-26. Retrieved 2011-12-02.
  23. "A spicy self-defense - The Times of India". The Times Of India.
  24. Geeta Padmanabhan; Aarti Dhar (October 19, 2008). "Safety is a right too". The Hindu. Chennai, India. Retrieved May 30, 2010.
  25. "Nieuwe wapenwet (New Gun Law)". Retrieved 2008-04-15.
  26. K.B. of 10 june 2006 tot regeling van het model, de inhoud, de wijze van dragen en het gebruik van spuitbussen en handboeien door de leden van de veiligheidsdiensten van de openbare vervoersmaatschappijen(B.S. 20 june 2006.
  27. "Prevence přepadení" [Prevention of assault] (in Czech). Policie České republiky – KŘP Královéhradeckého kraje (Police of the Czech Republic - Hradec Kralove region KRP).
  28. "Bekendtgørelse af lov om våben og eksplosivstoffer". Retsinformation.dk. Retrieved 2011-12-02.
  29. "How your gun permit applications are considered". blog.anta.net. 2007-10-21. ISSN 1797-1993. Retrieved 2008-03-23.
  30. §2 VersammlG.
  31. §32 StGB
  32. Ministerium des Inneren on Weapon Laws (german).
  33. 175/2003. (X. 28.) Korm. rendelet a közbiztonságra különösen veszélyes eszközökről.
  34. http://www.justice.ie/en/JELR/Pages/Firearms_and_ammunition
  35. "Regolamento concernente la definizione delle caratteristiche tecniche degli strumenti di autodifesa che nebulizzano un principio attivo naturale a base di Oleoresin Capsicum e che non abbiano attitudine a recare offesa alla persona, in attuazione dell'articolo 3, comma 32, della legge n. 94/2009. (11G0142) (GU n. 157 del 8-7-2011)" (PDF). Ministero dell'Interno (Italian Ministry of Interior). 2012-06-01.
  36. "Rozdział 2. Zasady i warunki wydawania, cofania pozwoleń na broń, rejestracji broni oraz dysponowania bronią i amunicją". Ustawa o broni i aminucji (in Polish). Marszałek Sejmu Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej. 2004-03-18. pp. art. 11. Retrieved 5 May 2011.
  37. "Статья 3 Закон об Оружии. Гражданское оружие - Кодексы и Законы РФ + Судебная практика".
  38. "Приказ Министерства здравоохранения и социального развития РФ от 22.10.2008 N 583н "О разрешении к применению слезоточивых и раздражающих веществ в составе патронов к газовому оружию, механических распылителей, аэрозольных и других устройств гражданского оружия самообороны"".
  39. Вукосављевић, Данијела. "Гасни спреј и електрошокер дозвољени по новом закону".
  40. "Každá žena sa môže stať obeťou trestného činu, buďte preto opatrné a pripravené".
  41. Polisen. "Knivar och andra farliga föremål".
  42. http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1968/27
  43. "Regulations Prescribing Certain Firearms and other Weapons, Components and Parts of Weapons, Accessories, Cartridge Magazines, Ammunition and Projectiles as Prohibited or Restricted (SOR/98-462)". Retrieved 2012-08-18.
  44. Pest Control Products Act, SC 2002, c 28, s 68.
  45. Crawford, Tiffany. "Vancouver police warn of criminal charges for carrying bear spray in the city".
  46. California Penal Code, Section 12403.7
  47. "M.G.L - Chapter 140, Section 131". Mass.gov. 2008-10-29. Retrieved 2011-08-16..
  48. http://www.boston.com/news/local/massachusetts/2014/05/22/mass-senate-backs-purchase-pepper-spray-without/1Pwxve7UQxod7mEGg6OStM/story.html
  49. "Michigan Penal Code 750.224d Self-defense spray or foam device". Legislature.mi.gov. Retrieved 2011-12-02.
  50. "RCW 9.91.160: Personal protection spray devices". Apps.leg.wa.gov. Retrieved 2010-05-30.
  51. "Sale and Distribution of OC Products to Private Citizens" (PDF). Retrieved 2011-09-23.
  52. "Wisconsin State Legal Statutes 941.26". Retrieved 2011-09-23.
  53. "Weapons Prohibition Act 1998 - Schedule 1". Retrieved 2017-04-10.
  54. "Weapons Control Act". Retrieved 2009-02-08.
  55. Police, South Australia. "Firearms and weapons".
  56. 1 2 Anne Calverley, 'Judge clears use of pepper spray', The West Australian, 28 March 2003, 1.
  57. Control of Weapons Regulations 2011 (Vic)
  58. "Arms (Restricted Weapons and Specially Dangerous Airguns) Order 1984". Parliamentary Counsel Office.
  59. Broadstock, M. (2002) What is the safety of "pepper spray" use by law enforcement or mental health service staff?, NZHTA Tech Brief Series 2002; 1(2). ISBN 1-877235-39-3.
  60. Hall v Collins [2003] WASCA 74 (4 April 2003).
  61. Tovey, Josephine (March 15, 2012). "Flight of the MacQuarie Street Ninja". The Sydney Morning Herald.


This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.