Parental leave

Demonstration for parental leave in the European Parliament.

Parental leave or family leave is an employee benefit available in almost all countries.[1] The term "parental leave" generally includes maternity, paternity, and adoption leave. A distinction between "maternity leave" and "parental leave" is sometimes made- maternity leave as the mother's leave time directly before and after childbirth and parental leave being the time given to care for newborns or young children.[2] In some countries and jurisdictions, "family leave" also includes leave provided to care for ill family members. Often, the minimum benefits and eligibility requirements are stipulated by law.

Unpaid parental or family leave is provided when an employer is required to hold an employee's job while that employee is taking leave. Paid parental or family leave provides paid time off work to care for or make arrangements for the welfare of a child or dependent family member. The three most common models of funding are social insurance/social security (where employees, employers, or taxpayers in general contribute to a specific public fund), employer liability (where the employer must pay the employee for the length of leave), and mixed policies that combine both social security and employer liability.[3]

Parental leave has been available as a legal right and/or governmental program for many years, in one form or another. In 2014, the International Labour Organization reviewed parental leave policies in 185 countries and territories, and found that all countries except Papua New Guinea have laws mandating some form of parental leave.[4] A different study showed that of 186 countries examined, 96% offered some pay to mothers during leave, but only 81 of those countries offered the same for fathers.[5] The United States, Suriname, Papua New Guinea, and several island countries in the Pacific Ocean are the only countries that do not require employers to provide paid time off for new parents.[6]

Private employers sometimes provide either or both unpaid and paid parental leave outside of or in addition to any legal mandate.

Economic models

Benefits of universal, paid parental leave

Capabilities approach

Amartya Sen and Martha Nussbaum have developed a political model known as the Capabilities approach, where basic freedoms and opportunities are included in economic assessments of a country's well-being, in addition to GDP.[7][8] Nussbaum proposed 10 central capabilities as the minimum requirement for a decent society. In Nussbaum's model, states should provide the resources and freedoms to ensure people have the opportunity to achieve a minimum threshold of each central capability. Universal, paid parental leave is an example resource states can provide so people have the option of starting a family while also working; for instance, under capacity 10 (control of one's environment), the state has a responsibility to ensure all people have "the right to seek employment on an equal basis with others."[8]

Gender equality

Whether parental leave contributes to gender equality depends upon (a) whether laws consider a child to be the responsibility of both parents and (b) whether the leave is equal as to the sexes. An example of a law that does not consider fathers equally responsible is England's parental responsibility law, which is gender-neutral and equal, but baseline applies only to fathers married to the mother at the time of the birth and thus exempts fathers not married to the mother unless someone brings an action on behalf of the child. An equal leave policy would consider the father to be more responsible than the mother for child care after birth, as the time in the womb is counted solely to the mother; in such a policy, mothers would be expected to consume leave for pregnancy, delivery and early lactation that would be matched by time fathers take later in the child's life.

In a 2014 Swiss study, Lanfranconi & Valarino identified one of the important ways Switzerland has considered parental leave policies is related to gender equality, where parental leave "enabl[es] a more equal division of work between men and women by fostering paternal involvement in childcare."[9] Similarly, a 2015 study by Rønsen & Kitterød found that part of the effect of Norwegian parental leave policy "contributed to... a more equal division of paid and unpaid work among parents."[10]

The advancement of gender equality has also been on the political agenda of Nordic countries for decades. Although, all Nordic countries have extended the total leave period, their politics towards father’s quota are different. Iceland, Norway and Sweden have established equal 3 months quotas for the father. The only Nordic country that does not provide fathers with a quota is Denmark. However, the dual earner/dual care model seems to be the direction of all the Nordic countries are moving in the construction of their parental leave systems.[11]

Income and workforce

Paid parental leave incentivizes labor market attachment for women both before and after birth, affecting GDP and national productivity, as the workforce is larger.[12][13][10][14] Parental leave increases income at the household level, as well, by supporting dual-earner families.[15]

Paid parental leave incentivizes childbirth, which affects the future workforce. It is thus argued that paid parental leave, in contrast to unpaid parental leave, is harmful to children's welfare because in countries with an aging workforce or countries with Sub-replacement fertility, children are born not because the parents want the child and can meet the child's needs but because children are expected to support their parents. Some see children as responsible for supporting all those in older generations in the society (not just the child's specific parents); their earnings are expected not to be saved for the children's own old age, but to be spent on the earlier generations' demand for social security and pensions for which there was inadequate savings.[16][17]

Challenges to universal, paid leave

Statistical discrimination

The neoclassical model of labor markets predicts that if the cost of hiring women of child-bearing years is anticipated to increase (either because the employer is mandated to pay for maternity leave, or because she will be absent from work on public leave), then the "demand" for women in the labor market will decrease. While gender discrimination is illegal, without some kind of remedy, the neoclassical model would predict "statistical discrimination" against hiring women of child-bearing years.[18][19]

Occupational sex segregation

If women take long parental leaves, the neoclassical model would predict that their lifetime earnings and opportunities for promotion will be less than their male or childfree counterparts, or the "motherhood penalty."[20] Women may seek out employment sectors that are "family-friendly" (i.e., with generous parental leave policies), resulting in occupational sex segregation.[21] Nielsen, Simonsen, and Verner examine what the different outcomes for women in Denmark are between the "family-friendly" and the "non-family-friendly" sector.[10] In Denmark, the public sector is "family-friendly" because of its generous leave and employee benefits; workers decide which sector to work on based on their preferences and opportunities. The study found that while in the "family-friendly" sector, there was basically no wage loss related to taking parental leave, women did have consistent earnings loss in the "non-family-friendly" private sector for a 1-year leave.[10]

Cost

Universal, paid parental leave can be privately funded (i.e., corporations are mandated to absorb the cost of paid parental time off as part of employee benefits) or publicly funded (i.e., transferred directly to workers on leave, like unemployment insurance). Concerns about private funding include the statistical discrimination described above as well as the costs to smaller businesses. Datta Gupta, Smith, & Verneer found in 2008 that, while publicly funded parental leave has benefits, it is very expensive to fund and question if it is the most cost-effective use of funds.

Criticism of the 'Father Quota'

Social norms have historically not included child care in the main responsibilities of fathers. However, in some, mainly western, countries, politicians, and social scientists argue for changing the role of the fathers, and the idea of the ‘new father’ has especially been shaped by the Nordic countries of Scandinavia. The process enables fathers to rationalize their parenting style and align this with what characterizes good care. Even though the mother’s role as main parent has not changed, male parental leave is claimed by its supporters to transform the traditionally gendered father practices and to create a social morality in relation to partners and children. Psychologists however consider that the allegedly positive effects of male parental leave are not supported by research, and warn that it might have negative effects. Norwegian psychology professor Leif Edward Ottesen Kennair believes the father's quota is indefensible from a psychological point of view, and argues that "we must at the very least ask ourselves what the consequences will be when we make a childhood environment that differs from what our species has evolved into." He believes the father's quota is "based on ideology, and only to an extremely limited extent on knowledge," arguing that it is "a social experiment, the effects of which are unknown."[22] It also has to be considered that fathers from different classes see their roles alternatively during their paternity leave. Whereas middle class fathers consider themselves as suitable alternative to the mother having the same competencies, working class men see themselves more as supporters during their leave. In consequence middle class fathers mostly use their leave right after the mother returns to work, meanwhile working class fathers do their leave during the mother's leave.[23]

Effects of parental leave

Typically, the effects of parental leave are improvements in prenatal and postnatal care, including a decrease in infant mortality.[24] The effects of parental leave on the labor market include an increase in employment, changes in wages, and fluctuations in the rate of employees returning to work. Leave legislation can also impact fertility rates.[25]

Effects on the labor market

A study in Germany found that wages decreased by 18 percent for every year an employee spends on parental leave.[25] However, after the initial decrease in wages, the employee’s salary rebounds faster than the salary of someone not offered parental leave.[25] A study of California’s leave policy, the first state in the U.S. to require employers to offer paid parental leave, showed that wages did increase.[26]

Parental leave can lead to greater job security.[25] Studies differ in how this helps return to work after taking time off. Some studies show that if a parent is gone for more than a year after the birth of a child, it decreases the possibility that he or she will return.[25] Other studies of shorter leave periods show that parents no longer need to quit their jobs in order to care for their children, so employment return increases.[26]

It does not appear that parental leave policies have had a significant effect on the gender wage gap, which has remained relatively steady since the late 1980s, despite increasing adoption of parental leave policies.[10]

Maternity leave and its effects

In the U.S., while the Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993 allows for unpaid parental leave, parents often do not utilize this eligibility to its fullest extent as it is unaffordable. As a result, some studies show that the FMLA has had a limited impact on how much leave new parents take.[27] Though specific amounts can vary, having a child (including the cost of high-quality childcare) costs families approximately $11,000 in the first year.[28] These high costs contribute to new mothers in the United States returning to work quicker than new mothers in European countries; approximately one-third of women in the United States return to work within three months of giving birth, compared to approximately five per cent in the UK, Germany, and Sweden,[29] and just over half of mothers in the United States with a child under the age of one work.[30]

There is some evidence that legislation for parental leave raises the likelihood of women returning to their previous jobs as opposed to finding a new job. This rise is thought to fall to between 10% and 17%. Simultaneously, there is a decrease in the percentage of women who find new jobs which falls between 6% and 11%. Thus, such legislation appears to increase how many women return to work post-childbirth by around 3% or 4%.[31]

Additionally, it appears that parental leave policies do allow women to stay home longer before returning to work as the probability of returning to an old job falls in the second month after childbirth before dramatically rising in the third month. Although this legislation thus appears to have minimal effect on women choosing to take leave, it does appear to increase the time women take in leave.[31]

Maternity leave legislation could pose benefits or harm to employers. The main potential drawback of mandated leave is its potential to disrupt productive activities by raising rates of employee absenteeism. With mandated leave for a certain period of time and facing prolonged absence of the mothers in the workplace, firms will be faced with two options: hire a temp (which could involve training costs) or function with a missing employee. Alternatively, these policies could be positive for employers who previously did not offer leave because they were worried about attracting employees who were disproportionately likely to use maternity leave. Thus, there is potential for these policies to correct market failures.[31] A drawback of rising leave at the societal level, however, is the resulting decrease in female labor supply. In countries with a high demand for labor, including many present-day countries with aging populations, a smaller labor supply is unfavorable.[32]

Something important to note for all the research cited above is that the results typically depend on how leave coverage is defined, and whether the policies are for unpaid or paid leave. Policies guaranteeing paid-leave are considered by some to be dramatically more effective than unpaid-leave policies.[27]

For women individually, long breaks in employment, as would come from parental leave, negatively affects their careers. Longer gaps are associated with reduced lifetime earnings and lower pension disbursements as well as worsened career prospects and reduced earnings. Due to these drawbacks, some countries, notably Norway, have expanded family policy initiatives to increase the father's quota and expand childcare in an effort to work towards greater gender equality.[32]

According to a 2016 study, the expansion of government-funded maternity leave in Norway from 18 to 35 months led mothers to spend more time at home without a reduction in family income.[33]

Paternity leave and its effects

Although parental leave is increasingly granted to fathers, mothers continue to take the majority of guaranteed parental leave.[34] When guaranteed leave is unpaid, research indicates that men's leave usage is unaffected.[35] While uncommon on a worldwide scale some countries do reserve parts of the paid leave for the father, meaning it can't be transferred to the mother and lapses unless he uses it. Among the earliest countries to actively push for increased usage of paternity leave are the Nordic welfare states - Iceland, Denmark, Sweden, Norway and Finland. These countries lack a unified concept of paternity leave, each imposing different conditions, ratios and timescales, but are regarded as among the most generous in the world, particularly "Norwegian parental leave benefits". Partly in an initiative to combat the "Motherhood penalty," Norway initiated a policy change in the mid-2000s to incentivize paternal leave.

In countries in which leave entitlements include a father's quota, sometimes called the "daddy quota" in Nordic family policy, there has been a more pronounced impact. Research in Norway, which has had a father's quota since 1993, shows that fathers' involvement in childcare has risen. The size of the quota has increased since then, from 4 weeks in 1993 to 14 weeks in 2013 but then being reduced to 10 weeks in 2014. The father's quota has been credited for increasing paternal involvement and challenging gender roles within the family, promoting a more equal division of labor.[32] To evaluate this change, Rønsen & Kitterød looked at the rate and timing of women's return to work after giving birth, and the effect on this of the new parental leave policy. In their 2015 study, Rønsen & Kitterød found women in Norway returned to work significantly faster after the policy change.[36] However, public or subsidized daycare was greatly expanded at the same time, so Rønsen & Kitterød did not find that the "daddy quota" was solely responsible for the timing of work entry. But it can be understood to have an effect on division of household labor by gender when both parents can take time to care for a new baby.[10]

Another impact from fathers taking more leaves is that in Norway, it has been shown to have the potential to either decrease or increase the time women take, depending on whether the mother's and father's childcare are seen as substitutes or complements. If substitute goods, mothers are able to return to work sooner as fathers take some of the childcare responsibility. As for the latter, longer leave for fathers can motivate mothers to also stay home.[10]

Fathers tend to use less parental leave than mothers in the United States as well as in other countries where paid leave is available,[27][37] and this difference may have factors other than the financial constraints which impact both parents. Bygren and Duvander,[37] looking at the use of parental leave by fathers in Sweden, concluded that fathers’ workplace characteristics (including the size of the workplace, whether there were more men or women in the workplace, and whether the workplace was part of the private or public sector) influenced the length of parental leave for fathers, as did the presence of other men who had taken parental leave at an earlier point in time. As of 2016 paternity leave accounts for 25% of paid parental leave in Sweden.

Length of leave

Family policy during World War II when women were recruited into the workplace.

In 2013, Joseph, Pailhé, Recotillet, and Solaz published a natural experiment evaluating a 2004 policy change in France.[38] They were interested in the economic effects of full-time, short paid parental leave. Before the reform, women had a mandatory two-month parental leave, and could take up to three years unpaid parental leave with their job guaranteed, though most women only took the two months. The new policy, complément libre choix d'activité (CLCA), guarantees six months of paid parental leave. The authors found positive effects on employment: compared to women in otherwise similar circumstances before the reform, first-time mothers who took the paid leave after the reform were more likely to be employed after their leave, and less likely to stay out of the labor force. The authors point to similar results of full-time, short paid parental leave observed in Canada in 2008 by Baker and Milligan,[39] and in Germany in 2009 by Kluve and Tamm.[40] However, Joseph, et al., also found that wages were lower (relative to women before the reform) for medium- and highly educated women after the leave, which could be because the women returned to work part-time or because of a "motherhood penalty," where employers discriminate against mothers, taking the six-month leave as a "signal" that the woman will not be as good of an employee because of her mothering responsibilities.

Rasmussen conducted analyzed a similar natural experiment in Denmark with a policy change in 1984 where parental leave increased from 14 to 20 weeks.[41] Rasmussen found the increased length of parental leave had no negative effect on women's wages or employment, and in the short-run (i.e., 12 months) it had a positive effect on women's wages, compared to the shorter leave. There was no difference on children's long-term educational outcomes before and after the policy change.

Effects on health and development

A Harvard report cited research showing paid maternity leave “facilitates breastfeeding and reduces risk of infection”[24] but is not associated with changes in immunization rate.[42] This research also found that countries with parental leave had lower infant mortality rates.[24] Returning to work within 12 weeks was also associated with less regular medical checkups.[43] Data from 16 European countries during the period 1969-1994 revealed that the decrease of infant mortality rates varied based on length of leave. A 10 week leave was associated with a 1-2% decrease; a 20 week leave with 2-4%; and 30 weeks with 7-9%.[44] The United States, which does not have a paid parental leave law, ranked 56th in the world in 2014 in terms of infant mortality rates, with 6.17 deaths per every 1,000 children born.[45] The research did not find any infant health benefits in countries with unpaid parental leave.

Paid leave, particularly when available prior to childbirth, had a significant effect on birth weight. The frequency of low birth rate decreases under these policies which likely contributes to the decrease in infant mortality rates as low birth weight is strongly correlated with infant death. However, careful analysis reveals that increased birth weight is not the sole reason for the decreased mortality rate.[42]

According to a 2016 study, the expansion of government-funded maternity leave in Norway from 18 to 35 months had little effect on children's schooling.[33] However, when infants bond and have their needs met quickly by caregivers (mothers, fathers, etc) they will become confident and be prepared to have healthy relationships throughout their life.[46]

Children whose mothers did not work in the first 9 months were found to be less ready for school at the age of 3 years. The effects of mother's employment appeared to be the most detrimental when employment started between the sixth and ninth month of life. The reasons for this were uncertain but there is conjecture that there was something unusual for the group of mothers who returned to work in this time period as they represented only 5% of all families studied. Negative impacts in terms of school-readiness were most pronounced when the mother worked at least 30 hours per week. These findings were complicated by many factors, including race, poverty, and how sensitive the mother was considered. The effects were also greater in boys which is explained by the fact that many analysts consider boys more vulnerable to stress in early life.[47]

The same Harvard report also linked paid parental leave and a child’s psychological health. It found that parents with paid parental leave had more intense bonds with their children.[24] Based on research of heterosexual couples, a better father’s immersion in the process of raising a child leads to an enhanced child’s development and furthermore improves the relationship between the two parents.[48] In recent years, various OECD countries drew attention to that topic, especially to the time of the parental leave taken by fathers. Short-term father’s leaves still lead to positive outcomes for the child’s development. However, due to the typically higher income-levels of men mother’s leaves are preferred to father’s leaves since the family forfeits less income when the mother takes off from work.[49]

There are also observable improvements in the mental health of mothers when they are able to return to work later. While the probability of experiencing postpartum depression had no significant statistical change, longer leave (leave over 10 weeks) was associated with decreased severity of depression and decreased number of experienced symptoms. This reduction was, on average, between 5% and 10%.[50]

While studies have shown conflicting results, some research has shown a link between paid parental leave and higher fertility rates. The research looked at women 25–34 years old, who are more likely to be affected by leave legislation. Fertility rates peaked for those between 25-29 and 30-34 across European countries.[25]

Effects on economy

The economic consequences of parental leave policies are subject to controversy. According to a 2016 study, the expansion of government-funded maternity leave in Norway from 18 to 35 months had net costs which amounted to 0.25% of GDP, negative redistribution properties and implied a considerable increase in taxes at a cost to economic efficiency.[33] In the U.S., paid family leave tends to lead to a higher employee retention rate and higher incomes for families.[51] Evidence from selected countries in Western Europe suggests that moderate levels of parental leave can encourage mothers to reenter the work force after having children, promoting national economic development.[52]

Private parental leave

Some businesses adopt policies that are favorable to workers and public opinion. In their study of maternity leave policies in the United States, Kelly and Dobbin found that public policy surrounding pregnancy as a temporary disability (for instance, California's Family Temporary Disability Insurance program) gave rise to business practices that included maternity leave as a benefit.[53]

Companies are starting to offer paid parental leave as a benefit to some American workers, seeing a profitable aspect of doing so, including: reduced turnover costs, increased productivity from workers, and increased rates of retention among women after childbirth. Some see the increase in paid parental leave as indicative of companies reaching out to women, as more women are working and returning to work after having children, and by doing so these companies generate positive publicity as employers with family-friendly workplaces.[28] Working Mother magazine publishes a list of 100 Best Companies for working mothers each year, a list which is noted not only by the readership of the magazine, but also by corporate America and increasingly by researchers and policy institutes as well.[28] The Institute for Women’s Policy Research issued a report in 2009 encouraging Congress to give federal workers four weeks of paid parental leave.[28] The report cited statistics from the Working Mother 100 Best Company list, using private sector corporations as examples of substantial increase in the retention of new mothers after instituting a longer maternity leave policy. The report also noted that it would take newer workers four years to accrue enough paid leave (sick leave and annual leave) to equal the 12 weeks of unpaid parental leave provided under the FMLA, and that private sector companies which offer paid parental leave have a significant advantage over the federal government in the recruitment and retention of younger workers who may wish to have children.

Variation in international law

The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women introduces "maternity leave with pay or with comparable social benefits without loss of former employment, seniority or social allowances".[54] The Maternity Protection Convention C 183 adopted in 2000 by International Labour Organization requires 14 weeks of maternity leave as minimum condition.[55]

National laws vary widely according to the politics of each jurisdiction. As of 2012, only three countries do not mandate paid time off for new parents: Papua New Guinea, Lesotho, and the United States.[56][57]

Unless otherwise specified, the information in the tables below is gathered from the most recent International Labour Organization reports. Maternity leave refers to the legal protection given to the mother immediately after she gives birth (but may also include a period before the birth), paternity leave to legal protection given to the father immediately after the mother gives birth, and parental leave to protected time for childcare (usually for either parent) either after the maternity/paternity leave or directly immediately after birth (for example when the parent is not eligible for maternity/paternity leave, and/or where the time is calculated until the child is a specific age - therefore excluding maternity/paternity leave - usually such jurisdictions protect the job until the child reaches a specific age.[58]) Others allow the parental leave to be transferred into part-time work time. Parental leave is generally available to either parent, except where specified. Leave marked "Unpaid" indicates the job is protected for the duration of the leave. Different countries have different rules regarding eligibility for leave, and long a parent has to have worked at their place of employment prior to giving birth before they are eligible for paid leave. In the European Union, the policies vary significantly by country - with regard to length, to payment, and to how parental leave relates to prior maternity leave - but the EU members must abide by the minimum standards of the Pregnant Workers Directive and Parental Leave Directive.[59]

Africa

Country Maternity leave (weeks) Maternity leave

(% of pay)

 Paternity leave (weeks) Paternity leave (% of pay) Parental leave [For EITHER parent] (weeks) Parental leave (% of pay) Source of payment
Algeria14[60]100%<1[61]100%0[61]N/AMixed (Social security maternity leave; employer liability paternity leave)
Angola13[60]100%0[61]N/A0[61]N/ASocial security
Benin14[60]100%2[61]100%0[61]N/AMixed (maternity: 50% social insurance; 50% employer. Paternity: 100% employer)
Botswana12[60]50%0[61]N/A0[61]N/AEmployer liability
Burkina Faso14[60]100%2[61]100%52[61]UnpaidMixed (Social security maternity leave; employer liability paternity leave)
Burundi12[60]100%2+[61]50%0[61]N/AMixed (maternity: 50% social insurance; 50% employer. Paternity: 100% employer)
Cameroon14[60]100%2[61]100%0[61]N/AMixed (Social security maternity leave; employer liability paternity leave)
Cape Verde09[60]90%0[61]N/A0[61]N/ASocial security
Central African Republic14[60]50%2[61]100%0[61]N/AMixed (Social security maternity leave; employer liability paternity leave)
Chad14[60]100%2[61]100%52[61]UnpaidMixed (Social security maternity leave; employer liability paternity leave)
Comoros14[60]100%2[61]100%0[61]N/AEmployer liability
Congo15[60]100%2[61]100%0[61]N/AMixed (maternity: 50% social insurance; 50% employer. Paternity: 100% employer)
Côte d’Ivoire14[60]100%2[61]100%0[61]N/AMixed (Social security maternity leave; employer liability paternity leave)
Democratic Republic of the Congo14[60]67%<1[62]100%0[62]N/AEmployer liability
Djibouti14[60]100%<1[62]100%0[62]N/AMixed (maternity: 50% social insurance; 50% employer. Paternity: 100% employer)
Egypt13[60]100%0[62]N/A104 (only mothers)[62]UnpaidMixed (75% social security; 25% employer liability)
Equatorial Guinea12[60]75%0[62]N/A0[62]N/ASocial security
Eritrea09[60]Unk0[62]N/A0[62]N/AEmployer liability
Ethiopia13[60]100%1[62]Unpaid0[62]N/AEmployer liability
Gabon14[60]100%2[62]100%0[62]N/AMixed (Social security maternity leave; employer liability paternity leave)
Gambia12[60]100%0[62]N/A0[62]N/AEmployer liability
Ghana12[60]100%0[62]N/A0[62]N/AEmployer liability
Guinea14[60]100%0[62]N/A38 (only mothers)[62]UnpaidMixed (50% social insurance; 50% employer)
Guinea-Bissau09[60]100%0[62]N/A0[62]N/AMixed (social security flat rate, employer pays the difference to equal wage)
Kenya13[63]100%2[62]100%0[62]N/AEmployer liability
Lesotho12[63]100%0[62]N/A0[62]N/AEmployer liability
Libya14[63]50% (100% for self-employed women)<1[62]0[62]N/AEmployer (social security for self-employed)
Madagascar14[63]100%2[62]100%0[62]N/AMixed (maternity: 50% social insurance; 50% employer. Paternity: 100% employer)
Malawi08[63]100%0[62]N/A0[62]N/AEmployer liability
Mali14[63]100%<1[62]100%0[62]N/ASocial security
Mauritania14[63]100%2[64]100%0[64]N/AMixed (Social security maternity leave; employer liability paternity leave)
Mauritius12[63]100%1[64]100%0[64]N/AEmployer liability
Morocco14[63]100%<1[64]100%52 (only mothers)[64]UnpaidSocial security
Mozambique09[63]100%<1[64]100%0[64]N/AMixed (Social security maternity leave; employer liability paternity leave)
Namibia12[63]100% (up to a ceiling)0[64]N/A0[64]N/ASocial security
Niger14[63]100%0[64]N/A0[64]N/AMixed (50% social insurance; 50% employer)
Nigeria12[63]50%0[64]N/A0[64]N/AEmployer liability
Rwanda12[63]100% for 6 weeks; 20% remainder<1[64]100%0[64]N/AEmployer liability
Sao Tome and Principe09[63]100%0[64]N/A0[64]N/ASocial security
Senegal14[63]100%0[64]N/A0[64]N/ASocial security
Seychelles14[63]Flat rate for 12 weeks; unpaid remainder<1[64]100%0[64]N/AMixed (Social security maternity leave; employer liability paternity leave)
Sierra Leone12[63]100%Employer liability
Somalia14[63]50%0[64]N/A0[64]N/AEmployer liability
South Africa17[63]60%<1[64]100%0[64]N/AMixed (Social security maternity leave; employer liability paternity leave)
Sudan08[63]100%0[64]N/A0[64]N/AEmployer liability
Swaziland12[63]100% for 2 weeks; unpaid remainder0[64]N/A0[64]N/AEmployer liability
Tanzania12[63]100%<1[64]100%0[64]N/AMixed (Social security maternity leave; employer liability paternity leave)
Togo14[63]100%2[65]100%0[65]N/AMixed (maternity: 50% social insurance; 50% employer. Paternity: 100% employer)
Tunisia04[63]66.70%<1[65]100%0[65]N/ASocial security
Uganda10[66]100%<1[65]100%0[65]N/AEmployer liability
Zambia12[67]100%0[65]N/A0[65]N/AEmployer liability
Zimbabwe14[67]100%0[65]N/A0[65]N/AEmployer liability

Americas

Country Maternity leave (weeks) Maternity leave (% of pay) Paternity leave (weeks) Paternity leave (% of pay) Parental leave [For EITHER parent] (weeks) Parental leave (% of pay) Source of payment
Antigua and Barbuda13[68]100% for 6 weeks; 60% for 7 weeks0[69]N/A0[69]N/AMixed (60% social security all 13 weeks plus 40% from employer for first 6 weeks)
Argentina13[68]100%<1[69]100%0[69]N/AMixed (Social security maternity leave; employer liability paternity leave)
Bahamas13[68]100% for 12 weeks; 66.7% for 1 week<1[69]Unpaid0[69]N/AMixed (2/3 social security for 13 weeks; 1/3 employer for 12 weeks)
Barbados12[70]100%0[69]N/A0[69]N/ASocial security
Belize14[70]100%0[69]N/A0[69]N/ASocial security
Bolivia13[70]95%0[69]N/A0[69]N/ASocial security
Brazil17[70]100%<1[69]100%0[69]N/AMixed (Social security maternity leave; employer liability paternity leave)
British Virgin Islands13[70]67%Social security
Canada15[71]55% / Up to 80% for low-income families (Up to maximum of $524 per week)[71]0N/A35[71]55% / Up to 80% for low-income families (Up to maximum of $524 per week)[71]Social security
Chile24[72]100% (up to a ceiling)1[69]100%12 (6 only for mothers)[69]100% (up to a ceiling)Social security
Colombia14[70]100%1+[69]100%0[69]N/ASocial security
Costa Rica17[70]100%0[69]N/A0[69]N/AMixed (50% social security, 50% employer)
Cuba18[70]100%0[69]N/A39[69]60%Social security
Dominica12[70]60%0[69]N/A0[69]N/ASocial security
Dominican Republic12[70]100%<1[69]100%0[69]N/AMixed (maternity: 50% social security, 50% employer; paternity: employer liability)
Ecuador12[70]100%2[69]100%0[69]N/AMixed (maternity: 75% social security, 25% employer; paternity: employer liability)
El Salvador12[70]75%<1[69]100%0[69]N/AMixed (Social security maternity leave; employer liability paternity leave)
Grenada13[70]100% for 8 weeks; 65% for remainder0[73]N/A0[73]N/AMixed (65% social security all 13 weeks plus 35% from employer for first 8 weeks)
Guatemala12[70]100%<1[73]100%0[73]N/AMixed (maternity: 2/3 social security, 1/3 employer; paternity: employer)
Guyana13[70]70%0[73]N/A0[73]N/ASocial security
Haiti12[70]100% for 6 weeks; unpaid remainder0[73]N/A0[73]N/AEmployer liability
Honduras12[70]100% for 10 weeks; unpaid remainder0[73]N/A0[73]N/AMixed (2/3 social security, 1/3 employer)
Jamaica12[70]100% for 8 weeks; unpaid remainder0[73]N/A0[73]N/AEmployer liability
Mexico12[70]100%1[73]100%0[73]N/ASocial security
Nicaragua12[70]100%0[73]N/A0[73]N/AMixed (60% social security, 40% employer)
Panama14[70]100%0[73]N/A0[73]N/ASocial security
Paraguay12[70]50% for 9 weeks; unpaid remainder<1[73]100%0[73]N/AMixed (Social security maternity leave; employer liability paternity leave)
Peru13[70]100%<1[73]100%0[73]N/AMixed (Social security maternity leave; employer liability paternity leave)
Puerto Rico8[70]100%<1[73]100%0[73]N/AEmployer liability
Saint Kitts and Nevis13[74]65%0[73]N/A0[73]N/ASocial security
Saint Lucia13[74]65%0[73]N/A0[73]N/ASocial security
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines13[74]65%Social security
Trindad and Tobago13[74]100%0[73]N/A0[73]N/AMixed (2/3 social security, 1/3 employer)
Uruguay12[74]100%<1[73]100%Mixed (Social security maternity leave; employer liability paternity leave)
United States of America0[75]N/A0[76]N/A12 each[76]UnpaidN/A
Venezuela26[74]100%2[73]100%0[73]N/ASocial security

Asia / Pacific

Country Paid maternity leave Paid paternity leave Unpaid maternity leave Unpaid paternity leave Restrictions
Afghanistan 90 days 100%
Azerbaijan 126 days 100%
Australia 18 weeks at National Minimum Wage (currently AUD$672.70 per week as at Sept 2015[77]) subject to primary caregiver income 2 weeks at National Minimum Wage Up to 52 weeks unpaid shared between the parents Up to 3 weeks of unpaid leave The 52 weeks are shared between the parents and all leave needs to be taken before the baby's first birthday. Australian maternity leave is means tested, whereby no payments are available to families where the primary caregiver has an annual salary above $150,000 per annum.[78][79]
Bahrain 60 days 100%
Bangladesh 16 weeks (8 weeks before delivery and 8 weeks after delivery) 100% In case of third (+) time mother, who has two or more babies alive already.
Cambodia 90 days 50% 10 days special leave for family events
China 98 days 100%
Fiji 84 days Flat rate
Hong Kong 10 weeks 80% 3 days 80%
India 26 weeks 100%. Up to 15 days (3 working weeks) male leave 100% Does not apply to the state of Jammu and Kashmir.[80] Prohibits employers from allowing women to work within six weeks after giving birth.[81] A female employee is eligible only if she worked for the employer at least 80 days during the 12-month period preceding the date of expected delivery.[82] In the case of a stillbirth or miscarriage, six weeks of paid leave is required instead.[82] From the third child onwards, only 12 weeks of paid maternity leave is permitted.[83]
Indonesia 3 months 100% Two days' paid when wife gives birth
Iran 6 months 100% 2 weeks compulsory 100%
Iraq 62 days 100%
Israel 14 weeks 100%, with an additional 12 weeks unpaid. The weeks from 6th to 14th can be taken by the father. Can take the paid leave instead of the mother starting from the 6th week (up to 14 weeks) 1 year
Japan 14 weeks 60% 1 year 1 year When parents take turns, the total period may be extended 2 months (but no longer than 1 year for each parent).[84][85]
Jordan 10 weeks 100%
Korea, Republic of 90 days 100% 1 year (40% of Original Salary, At least $400 At most $1,000 per a month paid by Employment Insurance) until the child is 6 years old Parents who have a child under 6 years old can get 1 year parental leave. The only condition that the employee(s) must satisfy is to have worked for at least 1 year in the company at the time the child is born.
Korea, Democratic People's Republic of 11 weeks[86][85]
Kuwait 70 days 100%
Lao People's Democratic Republic 3 months 70%
Lebanon 10[87] weeks 100% 1 day 100%
Malaysia 60 days 100%
Mongolia 120 days 70%
Myanmar 12 weeks 66.7% Six days of "casual leave" that can be used by fathers to assist their spouses at the time of confinement
Nepal 52 days 100%
New Zealand 18 weeks, 100% or NZ$516.85 per week[88] (whichever is lower). May start up to 6 weeks prior to birth; can be shared with father. None, plus any share from mother 52 weeks (including paid leave). Can be shared with father. 2 weeks, plus any share from mother If the mother is ordered to start leave early by a doctor, midwife or their employer, maternity leave may be extended beyond 18 weeks to the difference between the date of the order and the expected delivery date, plus 10 weeks.
Oman 14 weeks, 100%; 50 days prior to and 50 days after birth (per Omani Labor Law, Royal Decree No. 35/2003, 26 April 2003).[89]
Pakistan 45 days prior to confinement and 45 days after the confinement under rule 13 of the Revised Leave Rules, 1980. But it is 60 days for Armed Forces Nursing Service (AFNS)100%
Papua New Guinea 0 days 12 weeks
Philippines 60 days 100%, applicable also to miscarriages. 78 days 100% for C-section delivery. 7 days 100% parental leave per year for solo parents until the child is 18, or indefinitely if the child has a disability. Seven days paid paternity leave for married workers. 7 days 100% parental leave per year for solo parents until the child is 18, or indefinitely if the child has a disability. Maternity and paternity leave benefits are up to the 4th pregnancy only.
Qatar 50 days 100% for civil servants
Saudi Arabia 10 weeks 50% or 100% One day
Singapore 16 weeks 100% (Singaporean citizen) or 12 weeks 67% (non-Singaporean citizen)[90] 1 week of 100% Government-Paid Paternity Leave for fathers. 1 week of 100% Government-Paid Shared Parental Leave to allow fathers to share 1 week of the working mother’s maternity leave entitlement.[91] 16 weeks of Maternity Leave is restricted to married women whose children are Singapore citizens (at least one parent is a Singapore citizen) and has served her employer for at least 90 days before the child's birth.[90]
Solomon Islands 12 weeks 25%
Sri Lanka 12 weeks 100% (84 working days), 84 days 50% 03 days 100% 84 days
Syrian Arab Republic 50 days 70%
Taiwan 8 weeks 100% for more than six months of employment or 50% for less six months of employment 5 days 100%
Thailand 90 days 100% for 45 days paid by employer, then 45 days paid at 50% of wages (to a maximum of 7,500 baht per month) by the Thailand Social Security Fund
United Arab Emirates 45 Days 100% 55 days (total 100 days maternity leave) Maternity leave at 100% pay is subject to the employee having served continuously for not less than one year. The maternity leave shall be granted with half pay if the woman has not completed one year.
Vietnam 4–6 months 100%
Yemen 60 days 100%

Europe and Central Asia

Country Maternity leave

(weeks)

 Maternity leave

(% of pay)

 Paternity leave (weeks) Paternity leave

(% of pay)

 Parental leave [For EITHER parent] (weeks) Parental leave

(% of pay)

 Source of payment
Albania 52[68] 80% for 21 weeks; 50% remainder 0[92] N/A 2[92] 100% Mixed (Social security for maternity leave; employer liability for parental leave)
Andorra16[93]100%0[67]N/A0[67]N/ASocial security
Armenia20[68]100%0[92]N/A156[92]UnpaidSocial security
Austria16[93]100%0[67]N/A104[67]Flat rateSocial security
Azerbaijan18[68]100%2[92]Unpaid156[92]Flat rateSocial security
Belarus18[68]100%0[92]N/A156[92]80% of minimum wageSocial security
Belgium15[93]82% for 4 weeks; 75% for remainder (up to ceiling)2[94]100% for 3 days; 82% remainder17[94]Flat rateMixed (3 days paternity leave employer liability; Social security)
Bosnia and Herzegovina52[68]50%-100%1+[92]100%156[92]UnpaidMixed (Social security maternity leave; employer liability paternity leave)
Bulgaria58[95]90%2[95]90%104[95]flat-rate for 52 weeks; Unpaid reminderSocial security
Croatia58[68]100% for 26 weeks; flat-rate remainder2[92]100%156[92]UnpaidMixed (Social security maternity leave; employer liability paternity leave)
Cyprus18[93]75%0[94]N/A13[94]UnpaidSocial security
Czech Republic28[93]70%0[94]N/A156[94]Flat rateSocial security
Denmark18[93]100%2[94]100%32[94]100%Mixed (social security & employer)
Estonia62[96]100%2[94]100%36[94]UnpaidSocial security
Finland18[93]70%11[94]70% (up to a ceiling) plus26[94]70%Social security
France16[93]70%2+[94]100% (up to a ceiling)156[94]Flat rateSocial security
Georgia18[68]100%50Social security
Germany14[93]100%0[97]N/A156[97]67% (up to a ceiling) for 52 weeks; unpaid remainderMixed (social security & employer liability)
Greece17[93]100%<1[97]100%17 each[97]UnpaidMixed (Social security maternity leave; employer liability paternity leave)
Hungary24[93]70%1[97]100%156[97]70% (up to a ceiling) for 104 weeks; flat rate remainderSocial security
Iceland13[93]80%12[97]80% (up to a ceiling)26 each[97]80% (up to a ceiling) for first 13 weeks each; unpaid remainder
Ireland42[75]80% (up to a ceiling) for 26 weeks; unpaid remainder2[98]Flat rate (minimum €230 per week)[99]18 each[100]UnpaidSocial security
Italy22[75]80%<1[97]100%26 each[97]30%Social security
Kazakhstan18[68]100%1[92]Unpaid156[92]UnpaidSocial security
Kyrgyzstan18[68]7x minimum wageSocial security
Latvia16[75]80%2[97]80%78 each[97]70%Social security
Liechtenstein20[101]80%
Lithuania18[75]100%4[102]100% (up to a ceiling)156[102]100% for 52 weeks or 70% for 104 weeks; unpaid remainderSocial security
Luxembourg16[75]100%<1[102]100%26 each[102]Flat rateMixed (employer liability paternity leave; social security remainder)
Macedonia39[68]100%Social security
Malta18[75]100% for 14 weeks0[102]N/A13 each[102]UnpaidMixed (social security & employer liability)
Moldova18[68]100%0[103]N/A156[103]PartiallySocial security
Monaco16[75]90% (up to a ceiling)0[102]N/A0[102]N/ASocial security
Montenegro52[68]100%Social security
Netherlands16[75]100% (up to a ceiling)<1[102]100%26 each (with part-time work)[102]Unpaid but eligible for tax-breaksMixed (Social security maternity leave; employer liability paternity leave)
Norway35 (or 45)[75] 100% for 25 weeks or 80% for 45 weeks0-10 (depending on the mother's tax contribution in Norway for the preceding three years[104])100% or 80%36 or 46 (10 for mothers; 10 for fathers; 26 to be divided)[105]100% for 46 weeks or 80% for 56 weeks (up to a ceiling)Social security
Poland26[75]100%2[102]100%156[102]60% for 26 weeks; flat rate for 104; unpaid remainderSocial security
Portugal17 (or 21)[75]100% for 17 weeks or 80% for 213[102]100%13 each; "sharing bonus" of 4 weeks if initial leave shared[102]25%Social security
Romania18 (9 weeks before the anticipated date of birth, and 9 weeks after the anticipated date of birth)[75]85%5 days (15 days if an infant care course is taken). Can be taken at any point within the first eight weeks after the birth of the baby.[76]100%One parent is entitled to:
104 weeks (so until the child reaches the age of two; if taken by the mother, it includes the maternal leave after the birth); or 156 weeks if the child has a disability (so until the child reaches the age of three).[106]

Other parent is entitled to only 4 weeks (can be taken at any point during the first 2–3 years of the child's upbringing).[106]		85% [106]Social security
Russia20[68]100% (up to a ceiling)0[103]N/A156[103]40% (up to a ceiling) for 78 weeks; unpaid remainderSocial security
Serbia20[68]100%1+[103]100%52 (only mothers)[103]100% for 26 weeks; 60% weeks 27-39; 30% weeks 40-52Mixed (Social security maternity leave; employer liability paternity leave)
Slovakia34[75]65%0[76]N/A156[76]Flat rateSocial security
Slovenia15[75]100%12[76]100% (up to a ceiling) for 2 weeks; flat rate remainder37[76]90% (up to a ceiling)Social security
Spain16[75]100%2[76]100% (up to a ceiling)156 each[76]UnpaidSocial security
Sweden68 weeks or 480 days[107]80% (up to a ceiling)18[107]80% (up to a ceiling)60[107]80% (up to a ceiling) for 56 weeks; flat rate for remainderSocial security
Switzerland14[75]80% (up to a ceiling)0[76]N/A0[76]N/ASocial security
Tajikistan20[68]100%0[103]N/A156[103]Flat rate for 78 weeks; unpaid remainderSocial security
Turkey16[68]66.70%0[103]N/A26 (only mothers)[103]UnpaidSocial security
Turkmenistan16[68]100%Social security
Ukraine18[68]100%0[103]N/A156[103]Flat rate for 78 weeks; childcare allowance remainderSocial security
United Kingdom52[75] 90% for 6 weeks; 90%/flat rate for 32 weeks; unpaid remainder2[76]90% or flat-rate (whichever is less)13 each[76]UnpaidMixed (employers reimbursed)
Uzbekistan 18[68]100%0[103]N/A156[103]20% of minimum wage for 104 weeks; unpaid remainderSocial security

Parental leave policies in the United Nations

As international organizations are not subject to the legislation of any country, they have their own internal legislation on parental leave.

Organization Paid maternity leave Paid paternity leave Unpaid maternity leave Unpaid paternity leave Restrictions
United Nations[108] 16 weeks 100% (however, no fewer than 10 weeks must be after delivery, even if the pre-delivery leave was longer due to a late birth) 4 weeks 100% (or 8 weeks for staff members serving at locations where they are not allowed to live with their family) The fact that a staff member is or will be on parental leave cannot be a factor in deciding contract renewal. To ensure that this is enforced, if a contract ends while the staff member is on parental leave, the contract must be extended to cover the duration of such leave.

See also

Further reading

References

  1. ↑ "U.S. behind most of world in parental leave policy: study; Papua New Guinea, Swaziland & U.S. lag". NY Daily News. 24 Dec 2011.
  2. ↑ Ruhm, Christopher J. (July 1996). "The Economic Consequences of Parental Leave Mandates: Lessons from Europe" (PDF). National Bureau of Economic Research.
  3. ↑ Addati, Laura (2015-01-01). "Extending maternity protection to all women: Trends, challenges and opportunities". International Social Security Review. 68 (1): 69–93. ISSN 1468-246X. doi:10.1111/issr.12060.
  4. ↑ International Labour Organization. (2014). Maternity and Paternity at Work: Law and Practice Across the World.
  5. ↑ Gualt, Barbara; Hartmann, Heidi; Hegewisch, Ariane; Milli, Jessica; Reichlin, Lindsey. "Paid Parental Leave in the United States" (PDF). Institute for Women’s Policy Research. Retrieved 27 January 2017.
  6. ↑ Deahl, Jessica (6 October 2016). "Countries Around The World Beat The U.S. On Paid Parental Leave". NPR.
  7. ↑ Sen, Amartya. 1999. Development as Freedom. New York: Anchor Books.
  8. 1 2 Nussbaum, Martha. 2011. Creating Capabilities: The Human Development Approach. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. p. 34
  9. ↑ Lanfranconi, L. M.; Valarino, I. (2014). "Gender equality and parental leave policies in Switzerland: A discursive and feminist perspective". Critical Social Policy. 34 (4): 551. doi:10.1177/0261018314536132.
  10. 1 2 3 4 5 Rønsen, M.; Kitterød, R. H. (2015). "Gender-equalizing family policies and mothers' entry into paid work: recent evidence from Norway". Feminist Economics. 10 (1): 59–89.
  11. ↑ Eydal, G, Gíslason, I, Rostgaard, T, Brandth, B, Duvander, A, & Lammi-Taskula, J 2015, 'Trends in parental leave in the Nordic countries: Has the forward march of gender equality halted?', Community, Work & Family, 18, 2, pp. 167-181, PsycINFO, EBSCOhost, viewed 4 February 2016.
  12. ↑ Geyer, Johannes; Haan, Peter; Wrohlich, Katharina (1 January 2014). "The Effects of Family Policy on Mothers' Labor Supply: Combining Evidence from a Structural Model and a Natural Experiment" – via RePEc - IDEAS.
  13. ↑ Kluve, J.; Tamm, M. (2013). "Parental Leave Regulations, Mothers' Labor Force Attachment and Fathers' Childcare Involvement: Evidence from a Natural Experiment". Journal Of Population Economics. 26 (3): 983–1005. doi:10.1007/s00148-012-0404-1.
  14. ↑ Note: Rønsen & Kitterød, in their literature review on p. 60, reference several other citations to this same point, q.v., Marit Rønsen and Marianne Sundstrøm [1996]; Jutta M. Joesch [1997]; Christopher J. Ruhm [1998]; JaneWaldfogel, Yoshio Higuchi, and Masahiro Abe [1999]; Chiara Daniela Pronzato [2009]. These could be added
  15. ↑ Esping-Andersen, G (2003). "Women in the New Welfare Equilibrium". European Legacy. 8 (5): 599–610. doi:10.1080/1084877032000153975.
  16. ↑ Bittman, M (1999). "Parenthood Without Penalty: Time Use And Public Policy In Australia And Finland". Feminist Economics. 5 (3): 27–42. doi:10.1080/135457099337798.
  17. ↑ Esping-Andersen, G (2003). "Women in the New Welfare Equilibrium". European Legacy. 8 (5): 606.
  18. ↑ Akerlof, G. A., & Kranton, R. E. (2010). Identity Economics: How Our Identities Shape Our Work, Wages, and Well-Being. Princeton: Princeton University Press
  19. ↑ Esping-Andersen, G (2003). "Women in the New Welfare Equilibrium". European Legacy. 8 (5).
  20. ↑ Theunisse, G.; Verbruggen, M.; Forrier, A.; Sels, L. (2011). "Career Sidestep, Wage Setback? The Impact of Different Types of Employment Interruptions on Wages". Gender, Work & Organization. 18: e110–e131. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0432.2009.00471.x.
  21. ↑ Datta Gupta, N.; Smith, N.; Verner, M. (2008). "The Impact of Nordic Countries' Family Friendly Policies on Employment, Wages, and Children". Review of Economics of the Household. 6 (1): 65–89. doi:10.1007/s11150-007-9023-0.
  22. ↑ "Kvinner er mer opptatt av barna sine enn menn, sier forsker". Aftenposten. Retrieved 2011-06-22.
  23. ↑ Brandth, B., & Kvande, E. (2016). Fatherhood in the Nordic Welfare States: Comparing Care Policies and Practice. Bristol, United Kingdom: Policy Press.
  24. 1 2 3 4 Blades, Joan; Rowe-Finkbeiner, Kristin (2006). The Motherhood Manifesto: What America's Moms Want and What to Do about It. New York: Nation. ISBN 1-56025-884-5.
  25. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Akgunduz, Y. E.; Plantenga, J. (2012). "Labour market effects of parental leave in Europe". Cambridge Journal of Economics. 37 (4): 845–862. doi:10.1093/cje/bes052.
  26. 1 2 Rossin-Slater, M.; Ruhm, C. J.; Waldfogel, J. (2013). "The Effects of California's Paid Family Leave Program on Mothers' Leave-Taking and Subsequent Labor Market Outcomes". Journal of Policy Analysis and Management. 32 (2): 224–245. doi:10.1002/pam.21676.
  27. 1 2 3 Han, W.-J.; Waldfogel, J. (2003). "Parental Leave: The Impact of Recent Legislation on Parents' Leave-Taking". Demography. 40 (1): 191–200. doi:10.1353/dem.2003.0003.
  28. 1 2 3 4 Miller, K., Helmuth, A.S. et al. 2009. "The Need for Paid Parental Leave Policy: Adapting to a Changing Workforce." Institute for Women's Policy Research. Washington, D.C.
  29. ↑ Berger, L.M., Hill, J. et al. 2005. "Maternity Leave, Early Maternal Employment and Child Health Development in the US." The Economic Journal. 115(501):F29-F47.
  30. ↑ (Johnson 2007)
  31. 1 2 3 Baum II, Charles L. (April 2003). "The Effects of Maternity Leave Legislation on Mothers' Labor Supply after Childbirth" (PDF). Southern Economic Journal. 69: 772–799.
  32. 1 2 3 Ronsen, Marit; Kitterod, Ragni Hege (July 2014). "Gender-Equalizing Family Policies and Mothers' Entry into Paid Work: Recent Evidence from Norway". Feminist Economics. 21: 59–89. doi:10.1080/13545701.2014.927584.
  33. 1 2 3 Dahl, Gordon B.; Løken, Katrine V.; Mogstad, Magne; Salvanes, Kari Vea (2016-03-23). "What Is the Case for Paid Maternity Leave?". Review of Economics and Statistics. 98 (4): 655–670. ISSN 0034-6535. doi:10.1162/REST_a_00602.
  34. ↑ Ruhm, Christopher (July 1996). "The Economic Consequences of Parental Leave Mandates: Lessons from Europe" (PDF). National Bureau of Economic Research.
  35. ↑ Waldfogel, J; Han, WJ (February 2003). "Parental leave: the impact of recent legislation on parents' leave taking". National Center for Biotechnology Information. 40: 191–200. PMID 12647520.
  36. ↑ Rønsen, M.; Kitterød, R. H. (2015). "Gender-equalizing family policies and mothers' entry into paid work: recent evidence from Norway". Feminist Economics. 10 (1): 59–89 [84].
  37. 1 2 Bygren, M; Duvander, A.-Z. (2006). "Parents' Workplace Situation and Fathers' Parental Leave Use". Journal of Marriage and Family. 68 (2): 363–372. doi:10.1111/j.1741-3737.2006.00258.x.
  38. ↑ Joseph, Olivier; Pailhé (2013). "The economic impact of taking short parental leave: Evaluation of a French reform". Labour Economics, 25(European Association of Labour Economists 24th Annual Conference, Bonn, Germany, 20–22 September 2012). 25: 63–75. doi:10.1016/j.labeco.2013.04.012.
  39. ↑ Baker, M., Milligan, K.,2008. How does job-protected maternity leave affect mothers' employment? Journal of Labor Economics 26,655–692.
  40. ↑ Kluve, J., Tamm, M.,2009. Now daddy's changing diapers and mommy's making her career: evaluating a generous parental leave regulation using a natural experiment. IZA Discussion Papers 4500. Institute for the Study of Labor(IZA).
  41. ↑ Rasmussen, A. W. (2010). "Increasing the length of parents' birth-related leave: The effect on children's long-term educational outcomes". Labour Economics. 17: 91–100. doi:10.1016/j.labeco.2009.07.007.
  42. 1 2 Tanaka, Sakiko (January 2005). "Parental leave and child health across OECD countries". http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.0013-0133.2005.00970.x/abstract. 115: F7–F28. doi:10.1111/j.0013-0133.2005.00970.x. External link in |journal= (help)
  43. ↑ Berger, Lawrence M.; Hill, Jennifer; Waldfogel, Jane (February 2005). "Maternity leave, early maternal employment and child health and development in the US". The Economic Journal. 115: F29–F47. doi:10.1111/j.0013-0133.2005.00971.x.
  44. ↑ Ruhm, C. (2000). "Parental leave and child health". Journal of Health Economics. 19: 931–60. doi:10.1016/s0167-6296(00)00047-3.
  45. ↑ "The World Factbook". Cia.gov. Retrieved 2015-03-21.
  46. ↑ Steinfeld, Mary. "Bonding is essential for normal infant development". UC Davis Medical Center. Retrieved 27 January 2017.
  47. ↑ Brooks-Gunn, Jeanne; Han, Wen-Jui; Waldfogel, Jane (August 2002). "Maternal Employment and Child Cognitive Outcomes in the First Three Years of Life: The NICHD Study of Early Child Care". Child Development. 73: 1052–1072. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00457.
  48. ↑ Allen, Sarah and Kerry Daly. 2007. The Effects of Father Involvement: An Updated Research Summary of the Evidence. Centre for Families, Work & Well-Being, University of Guelph. Guelph, Ontario. 53 p. (accessed February 3, 2016)
  49. ↑ "Perspectives on Labour and Income: Fathers' use of paid parental leave".
  50. ↑ Chatterji, Pinka; Markowitz, Sara (January 2004). "Does the Length of Maternity Leave Affect Maternal Health?" (PDF). National Bureau of Economic Research.
  51. ↑ Gualt, Barbara; Hartmann, Heidi; Hegewisch, Ariane; Milli, Jessica; Reichlin, Lindsey. "Paid Parental Leave in the United States" (PDF). Institute for Women’s Policy Research. Retrieved 27 January 2017.
  52. ↑ Morgan, Kimberly J. (2006). Working mothers and the welfare state religion and the politics of work-family policies in Western Europe and the United States. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press. ISBN 9780804754132.
  53. ↑ Kelly, E.; Dobbin, F. (1999). "Civil Rights Law at Work: Sex Discrimination and the Rise of Maternity Leave Policies". The American Journal of Sociology. 105 (2): 455–492. doi:10.1086/210317.
  54. ↑ Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, Article 11, 2 (b)
  55. ↑ Maternity Protection Convention C 183, Article 4
  56. ↑ Addati, L., Cassirer, N., & Gilchrist, K. (2014, May 13). Maternity and paternity at work: Law and practice across the world. International Labour Organization. ISBN 978-92-2-128630-1
  57. ↑ Working Conditions Laws Report 2012: A global review (PDF). International Labor Organization. 2013. ISBN 978-92-2-127516-9.
  58. ↑ e.g. in Czech Republic: "Section 196 Parental Leave reads: "In order to extend the care being given to a child, the employer shall grant a female or male employee parental leave if so requested (applied for). Parental leave is granted to the mother of a child upon termination of her maternity leave and to the father of a child from the day when the child is born and it is granted within the scope as requested (as applied for), but no longer than until the day when the child reaches the age of three years."
  59. ↑ "Professional, private and family life - European Commission".
  60. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 Addati, L., Cassirer, N., & Gilchrist, K. (2014, May 13). Maternity and paternity at work: Law and practice across the world. International Labour Organization. 978-92-2-128630-1[ISBN]. p. 133
  61. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 Addati, L., Cassirer, N., & Gilchrist, K. (2014, May 13). Maternity and paternity at work: Law and practice across the world. International Labour Organization. 978-92-2-128630-1[ISBN]. p. 150
  62. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 Addati, L., Cassirer, N., & Gilchrist, K. (2014, May 13). Maternity and paternity at work: Law and practice across the world. International Labour Organization. 978-92-2-128630-1[ISBN]. p. 151
  63. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 Addati, L., Cassirer, N., & Gilchrist, K. (2014, May 13). Maternity and paternity at work: Law and practice across the world. International Labour Organization. 978-92-2-128630-1[ISBN]. p. 134
  64. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 Addati, L., Cassirer, N., & Gilchrist, K. (2014, May 13). Maternity and paternity at work: Law and practice across the world. International Labour Organization. 978-92-2-128630-1[ISBN]. p. 152
  65. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Addati, L., Cassirer, N., & Gilchrist, K. (2014, May 13). Maternity and paternity at work: Law and practice across the world. International Labour Organization. 978-92-2-128630-1[ISBN]. p. 153
  66. ↑ Addati, L., Cassirer, N., & Gilchrist, K. (2014, May 13). Maternity and paternity at work: Law and practice across the world. International Labour Organization. 978-92-2-128630-1[ISBN]. p. 135
  67. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Addati, L., Cassirer, N., & Gilchrist, K. (2014, May 13). Maternity and paternity at work: Law and practice across the world. International Labour Organization. 978-92-2-128630-1[ISBN]. p. 154
  68. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 Addati, L., Cassirer, N., & Gilchrist, K. (2014, May 13). Maternity and paternity at work: Law and practice across the world. International Labour Organization. 978-92-2-128630-1[ISBN]. p. 138
  69. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 Addati, L., Cassirer, N., & Gilchrist, K. (2014, May 13). Maternity and paternity at work: Law and practice across the world. International Labour Organization. 978-92-2-128630-1[ISBN]. p. 161
  70. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 Addati, L., Cassirer, N., & Gilchrist, K. (2014, May 13). Maternity and paternity at work: Law and practice across the world. International Labour Organization. 978-92-2-128630-1[ISBN]. p. 139
  71. 1 2 3 4 "Employment Insurance Maternity and Parental Benefits". 2014-11-21. Retrieved 2 June 2015.
  72. ↑ "Chile Atiende - Nuevo Posnatal". 2014-07-09. Retrieved 19 August 2015.
  73. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 Addati, L., Cassirer, N., & Gilchrist, K. (2014, May 13). Maternity and paternity at work: Law and practice across the world. International Labour Organization. 978-92-2-128630-1[ISBN]. p. 162
  74. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Addati, L., Cassirer, N., & Gilchrist, K. (2014, May 13). Maternity and paternity at work: Law and practice across the world. International Labour Organization. 978-92-2-128630-1[ISBN]. p. 140
  75. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Addati, L., Cassirer, N., & Gilchrist, K. (2014, May 13). Maternity and paternity at work: Law and practice across the world. International Labour Organization. 978-92-2-128630-1[ISBN]. p. 137
  76. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Addati, L., Cassirer, N., & Gilchrist, K. (2014, May 13). Maternity and paternity at work: Law and practice across the world. International Labour Organization. 978-92-2-128630-1[ISBN]. p. 158
  77. ↑ "Minimum Wages". Fair Work Australia. Retrieved 11 September 2016.
  78. ↑ "Part 2: Expense Measures - Families, Housing, Community Services and Indigenous Affairs". budget.gov.au/2009-10. Australian Government "Budget 2009-10".
  79. ↑ Hondralis, Irina (Spring 2017). "Does maternity leave pay off? Evidence from a recent reform in Australia". Social Politics. Oxford Journals. 24 (1): 29–54. doi:10.1093/sp/jxw009.
  80. ↑ Maternity Benefits Act, 1961. Section 1. VakilNo1. 12 December 1961.
  81. ↑ Maternity Benefits Act, 1961. Section 4. VakilNo1. 12 December 1961.
  82. 1 2 Lotiya, Palak. "Maternity benefits – A mode of dignifying motherhood". Paycheck.in. Indian Institute of Management.
  83. ↑ "Parliament passes bill to extend maternity leave from 12 to 26 weeks". Hindustan Times. 9 March 2017. Retrieved 9 March 2017.
  84. ↑ Introduction to the revised Child Care and Family Care Leave Law (PDF). Japan: Ministry of Health, Labour, and Welfare.
  85. 1 2 Fleckenstein, Timo; Lee, Soohyun Christine (Spring 2017). "Does maternity leave pay off? Evidence from a recent reform in Australia". Social Politics. Oxford Journals. 24 (1): 1–28. doi:10.1093/sp/jxw008.
  86. ↑ Har, Janie (2013). "Is paid maternity leave really the standard around the world?". politifact.com. politifact.
  87. ↑ "Parliament extends maternity leave to 10 weeks". Al Joumhouria. April 2014.
  88. ↑ "Parental leave payments to increase from 1 July". The Beehive. Retrieved 2016-04-06.
  89. ↑ "قانون العمل" [toc_en] (pdf). Oman Government. 26 April 2003. Retrieved July 31, 2014.
  90. 1 2 "Maternity Leave". Ministry of Manpower, Singapore. Retrieved 3 February 2013.
  91. ↑ "Paternity Leave". Ministry of Manpower, Singapore. Retrieved 3 February 2013.
  92. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Addati, L., Cassirer, N., & Gilchrist, K. (2014, May 13). Maternity and paternity at work: Law and practice across the world. International Labour Organization. 978-92-2-128630-1[ISBN]. p. 159
  93. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Addati, L., Cassirer, N., & Gilchrist, K. (2014, May 13). Maternity and paternity at work: Law and practice across the world. International Labour Organization. 978-92-2-128630-1[ISBN]. p. 136
  94. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Addati, L., Cassirer, N., & Gilchrist, K. (2014, May 13). Maternity and paternity at work: Law and practice across the world. International Labour Organization. 978-92-2-128630-1[ISBN]. p. 155
  95. 1 2 3 "Lex.bg - Закони, правилници, конституция, кодекси, държавен вестник, правилници по прилагане". Retrieved 2017-02-07.
  96. ↑ "Families with children".
  97. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Addati, L., Cassirer, N., & Gilchrist, K. (2014, May 13). Maternity and paternity at work: Law and practice across the world. International Labour Organization. 978-92-2-128630-1[ISBN]. p. 156
  98. ↑ CitizensInformation.ie - Paternity leave
  99. ↑ CitizensInformation.ie - Paternity Benefit
  100. ↑ "Parental Leave". Citizen Information. 6 October 2015. Retrieved 27 June 2016.
  101. ↑ "Your Social Security Rights in Liechtenstein" (PDF). Employment, Social Affairs & Inclusion. European Commission. 2013. Retrieved May 17, 2015.
  102. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Addati, L., Cassirer, N., & Gilchrist, K. (2014, May 13). Maternity and paternity at work: Law and practice across the world. International Labour Organization. 978-92-2-128630-1[ISBN]. p. 157
  103. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Addati, L., Cassirer, N., & Gilchrist, K. (2014, May 13). Maternity and paternity at work: Law and practice across the world. International Labour Organization. 978-92-2-128630-1[ISBN]. p. 160
  104. ↑ Norwegian Labour and Welfare Administration. "Special rules for parental benefit paid to the father". www.nav.no. Retrieved 2016-06-08.
  105. ↑ Norwegian Labour and Welfare Administration. "Paternal quota (paternity leave), maternal quota and shared period". www.nav.no. Retrieved 2016-06-08.
  106. 1 2 3 Romanian Government Emergency Ordinance nr. 11/2010, as modified by Law 66/2016 (20 April 2016).
  107. 1 2 3 "Employees and parental leave". Försökringskassan. Retrieved August 9, 2016.
  108. ↑ "Leave - Family leave, Maternity leave and Paternity leave". Gender related United Nations system policies. United Nations. Retrieved 5 October 2012.
This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.