Bovine malignant catarrhal fever

Bovine malignant catarrhal fever
Virus classification
Group: Group I (dsDNA)
Family: Herpesviridae
Subfamily: Gammaherpesvirinae
Genus: Macavirus
Binomial name
Alcelaphine gammaherpesvirus 1 (AlHV-1)
Ovine gammaherpesvirus 2 (OHV-2)

Bovine malignant catarrhal fever (BMCF) is a fatal lymphoproliferative disease[1] caused by a group of ruminant gamma herpes viruses including Alcelaphine gammaherpesvirus 1 (AlHV-1)[2] and Ovine gammaherpesvirus 2 (OvHV-2)[1][3] These viruses cause unapparent infection in their reservoir hosts (sheep with OvHV-2 and wildebeest with AlHV-1), but are usually fatal in cattle and other ungulates such as deer, antelope, and buffalo.[2]

BMCF is an important disease where reservoir and susceptible animals mix. There is a particular problem with Bali cattle in Indonesia,[4] bison in the US[5] and in pastoralist herds in Eastern and Southern Africa.[6][7]

Disease outbreaks in cattle are usually sporadic although infection of up to 40% of a herd has been reported. The reasons for this are unknown. Some species appear to be particularly susceptible, for example Pére Davids deer,[8] Bali cattle[4] and bison,[5] with many deer dying within 48 hours of the appearance of the first symptoms and bison within three days.[1][9] In contrast, post infection cattle will usually survive a week or more.[10]

Epidemiology

The term bovine malignant catarrhal fever has been applied to three different patterns of disease:

The incubation period of BMCF is not known, however intranasal challenge with AHV-1 induced MCF in one hundred percent of challenged cattle between 2.5 and 6 weeks.[23] Shedding of the virus is greater from 6–9 month old lambs than from adults.[1] After experimental infection of sheep, there is limited viral replication in nasal cavity in the first 24 hours after infection, followed by later viral replication in other tissues.[1]

Clinical signs

The most common form of the disease is the head and eye form. Typical symptoms of this form include fever, depression, discharge from the eyes and nose, lesions of the buccal cavity and muzzle, swelling of the lymph nodes, opacity of the corneas leading to blindness, inappetance and diarrhea. Some animals have neurologic signs, such as ataxia, nystagmus, and head pressing. Peracute, alimentary and cutaneous clinical disease patterns have also been described.[24] Death usually occurs within ten days.[25] The mortality rate in symptomatic animals is 90 to 100 percent.[19] Treatment is supportive only.

Diagnosis

Diagnosis of BMCF depends on a combination of history and symptoms, histopathology[24] and detection in the blood or tissues of viral antibodies by ELISA[26][27] or of viral DNA by PCR.[20][28][29] The characteristic histologic lesions of MCF are lymphocytic arteritis with necrosis of the blood vessel wall and the presence of large T lymphocytes mixed with other cells.[1] The similarity of MCF clinical signs to other enteric diseases, for example blue tongue, mucosal disease and foot and mouth make laboratory diagnosis of MCF important.[30] The world organisation for animal health[24] recognises histopathology as the definitive diagnostic test, but laboratories have adopted other approaches with recent developments in molecular virology. No vaccine has as yet been developed.

Vaccine

Unfortunately a vaccine for malignant catarrhal fever (MCF) has not yet been developed.[1] Developing a vaccine has been difficult because the virus will not grow in cell culture and until recently it was not known why. Researchers at the Agricultural Research Service (ARS) found that the virus undergoes changes within the animal's body, a process known as "cell tropism switching". In cell tropism switching, the virus targets different cells at different points in its life cycle. This phenomenon explains why it has been impossible to grow the virus on any one particular cell culture.

Because the virus is transmitted from sheep to bison and cattle, researchers are first focusing on the viral life cycle in sheep. The viral life cycle is outlined in three stages: entry, maintenance, and shedding. Entry occurs through the sheep's nasal cavity and enters into the lungs where it replicates. The virus undergoes a tropic change and infects lymphocytes, also known as white blood cells, which play a role in the sheep's immune system. In the maintenance stage the virus remains on the sheep's lymphocytes and circulates the body. Finally, during the shedding stage, the virus undergoes another change and shifts its target cells from lymphocytes to nasal cavity cells, where it is then shed through nasal secretions.[31] This discovery undoubtedly puts scientists on the right track for developing a vaccine – starting with the correct cell culture for each stage of the virus lifecycle – but ARS researchers are also looking into alternative methods to develop a vaccine. Researchers are experimenting with the MCF virus that infects topi (an African antelope) because it will grow in cell culture and does not infect cattle. Researchers hope that inserting genes from the sheep MCF virus into the topi MCF virus will ultimately be an effective MCF vaccine for cattle and bison.[31] While there is much ground left to cover, scientists are getting closer and closer to developing a vaccine.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 O'Toole, D; Li H (March 2014). "The pathology of malignant catarrhal Fever, with an emphasis on ovine herpesvirus 2.". Veterinary Pathology. 51 (2): 437–452. PMID 24503439. doi:10.1177/0300985813520435. Retrieved 21 March 2014.
  2. 1 2 3 Plowright W; Ferris RD; Scott GR. Nature. 1960 Dec 31;188:1167–9. "Blue wildebeest and the aetiological agent of bovine malignant catarrhal fever".
  3. Schultheiss PC, Collins JK, Spraker TR, DeMartini JC. J Vet Diagn Invest. 2000 Nov;12(6):497–502.
  4. 1 2 Wiyono A; Baxter SI; Saepulloh M; Damayanti R; Daniels P; Reid HW. Vet Microbiol.1994 Sept;42(1):45–52. "PCR detection of ovine herpesvirus-2 DNA in Indonesian ruminants—normal sheep and clinical cases of malignant catarrhal fever".
  5. 1 2 Berezowski JA; Appleyard GD; Crawford TB; Haigh J; Li H; Middleton DM; O'Connor BP; West K; Woodbury M. J Vet Diagn Invest.2005 Jan;17(1):55–8. "An outbreak of sheep-associated malignant catarrhal fever in bison (Bison bison) after exposure to sheep at a public auction sale".
  6. Cleaveland S; Kusiluka L; Ole Kuwai J; Bell C; Kazwala R. 2001. "Assessing the impact of Malignant Catarrhal Fever in Ngorongoro District, Tanzania. A study commissioned by the Animal Health Programme, DFID".
  7. Bedelian C; Nkedianye D; Herrero M. Prev Vet Med. 2007 Mar 17;78(3–4):296–316. "Maasai perception of the impact and incidence of malignant catarrhal fever (MCF) in southern Kenya".
  8. Reid H; Buxton D; McKelvey WA; Milne JA; Appleyard WT. Vet Rec. 1987 Sept 19;121(12):276–7. "Malignant catarrhal fever in Père David's deer".
  9. O'Toole D; Li H; Sourk C; Montgomery DL; Crawford TB. J Vet Diagn Invest.2002 May;14(3):183–93. "Malignant catarrhal fever in a bison (Bison bison) feedlot, 1993–2000".
  10. Holliman A; Daniel R; Twomey DF; Barnett; Scholes; Willoughby K; Russell G. Vet Rec. 2007 Oct 6;161(14):494–5. "Malignant catarrhal fever in cattle in the UK".
  11. Mushi EZ; Rurangirwa FR. Bull Anim Health Prod Afr. 1981 Mar;29(1):111–2. "Malignant catarrhal fever virus shedding by infected cattle".
  12. Baxter SI, Wiyono A, Pow I, Reid HW. "Identification of Ovine Herpes Virus-2 infection in sheep, Archives of Virology 142(1997):823–831".
  13. Barnard BJ, Van der Lugt JJ, Mushi EZ. Malignant Catarrhal Fever. In: JAW Coetzer; GR Thompson; RC Tustin; Editors, Infectious Diseases of Livestock, Oxford University Press, New York (1994).
  14. Homewood KH, Rodgers WA, Arhem K. "Ecology of pastoralism in Ngorongoro Conservation Area, Tanzania, J. Agric. Sci. Camb. 108(1987), pp. 47–72".
  15. Boone RB; Coughenour MB. 2001. A system for integrated management and assessment of east African pastoral lands. Balancing food security, wildlife conservation, and ecosystem integrity. Final report to the Global Livestock Collaborative Research Support Program (Report).
  16. 1 2 Fenner, Frank J.; Gibbs, E.; Paul J.; Murphy, Frederick A.; Rott, Rudolph; Studdert, Michael J.; White, David O. (1993). Veterinary Virology (2nd ed.). Academic Press, Inc. ISBN 0-12-253056-X.
  17. O'Toole D; Taus NS; Montgomery DL; Oaks JL; Crawford TB; Li H. Vet Pathol. 2007 Sept;44(5):655–62. "Intra-nasal inoculation of American bison (Bison bison) with ovine herpesvirus-2 (OvHV-2) reliably reproduces malignant catarrhal fever".
  18. Taus NS; Herndon DR; Traul DL; Stewart JP; Ackermann M; Li H; Brayton KA. J Gen Virol.2007 Jan;88(Pt1):40–5. "Comparison of ovine herpesvirus 2 genomes isolated from domestic sheep (Ovis aries) and a clinically affected cow (Bos bovis)".
  19. 1 2 "Malignant Catarrhal fever" (PDF). The Center for Food Security and Public Health at Iowa State University. 2005. Retrieved 2006-05-13.
  20. 1 2 Hüssy D, Stäuber N, Leutenegger CM, Rieder S, Ackermann M. "Quantitative fluorogenic PCR assay for measuring ovine herpesvirus 2 replication in sheep, Clinical and Diagnostic Laboratory Immunology 8(2001),pp.123–128".
  21. Cooley AJ; Taus NS; Li H. J Zoo Wildl Med. 2008 Sep;39(3):380-5. "Development of a management program for a mixed species wildlife park following an occurrence of malignant catarrhal fever".
  22. Li H; Karney G, O'Toole D, Crawford TB. Can Vet J. 2008 Feb;49(2):183–5. "Long distance spread of malignant catarrhal fever virus from feedlot lambs to ranch bison".
  23. Haig DM, Grant D, Deane D, Campbell I, Thomson J, Jepson C, Buxton D, Russell GC. Vaccine. 2008 Aug 18;26(35):4461–8. "An immunisation strategy for the protection of cattle against alcelaphine herpesvirus-1-induced malignant catarrhal fever".
  24. 1 2 3 OIE. OIE Manual of Diagnostic Tests and Vaccines for terrestrial Animal, fifth ed., France. pp. 570–579.
  25. Carter, G.R.; Flores, E.F.; Wise, D.J. (2006). "Herpesviridae". A Concise Review of Veterinary Virology. Retrieved 2006-06-10.
  26. Fraser SJ; Nettleton PF; Dutia BM; Haig DM; Russell GC. Vet Microbiol.2006 Aug 25;116(1–3):21–8. "Development of an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for the detection of antibodies against malignant catarrhal fever viruses in cattle serum".
  27. Li H;McGuire TC; Müller-Doblies UU; Crawford TB. J Vet Diagn Invest. 2001 Jul;13(4):361–4. "A simpler, more sensitive competitive inhibition enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for detection of antibody to malignant catarrhal fever viruses".
  28. Cunha CW; Otto L; Taus NS; Knowles DP; Li H. J Clin Microbiol. 2009 Jun 3. "Development of a multiplex real-time PCR for detection and differentiation of malignant catarrhal fever viruses in clinical samples".
  29. Traul DL; Taus NS; Lindsay Oaks J; O'Toole D; Rurangirwa FR; Baszler TV; Li H. J Vet Diagn Invest. 2007 Jul;19(4):405-8. "Validation of nonnested and real-time PCR for diagnosis of sheep-associated malignant catarrhal fever in clinical samples".
  30. Bexiga R; Guyot H; Saegerman C; Mauroy A; Rollin F; Thiry E; Philbey AW; Logue DN; Mellor DJ; Barrett DC; Ellis K. Vet Rec. 2007 Dec 22–29;161(25):858–9. "Clinical differentiation of malignant catarrhal fever, mucosal disease and bluetongue".
  31. 1 2 "Figuring Out Puzzling Animal Diseases". USDA Agricultural Research Service. 2010-04-02. Archived from the original on 2010-04-05. Retrieved July 9, 2017.
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