Battle of Madagascar

Battle of Madagascar
Part of the Indian Ocean theatre of World War II

Kings African Rifles' 25 pdr battery in action near Ambositra in Madagascar against Vichy positions during Operation Steam Line Jane, September 1942.
Date5 May 1942 – 6 November 1942
LocationMadagascar, Indian Ocean
12°16′S 49°17′E / 12.267°S 49.283°E / -12.267; 49.283Coordinates: 12°16′S 49°17′E / 12.267°S 49.283°E / -12.267; 49.283
Result Allied victory
Territorial
changes
Free French administration established in Madagascar
Belligerents

British Empire British Commonwealth

Netherlands Netherlands (naval only)

Non-combatant Support:

Belgium Belgium

Poland Poland

Vichy France Vichy France


Empire of Japan Japan (naval only)

Non-combatant Support:

Nazi Germany Germany
Commanders and leaders
Strength
10,000–15,000 soldiers (land forces) Vichy France:
8,000 troops[1]
6 tanks
35 aircraft[2]
4 warships[3]
Casualties and losses
  • 620 casualties in total (107 killed in action; 280 wounded; 108 died from disease)[2]
  • 1 battleship heavily damaged
  • 1 oil tanker sunk
  • 150 killed in action; 500 wounded (does not include any casualties caused by disease)[2]
  • 1,000~ POW[4]
  • 2 midget submarines destroyed
Location of Diego Suarez Bay

The Battle of Madagascar was the British campaign to capture Vichy French-controlled Madagascar during World War II. The seizure of the island by the British was to deny Madagascar's ports to Japanese Navy and to prevent the loss or impairment of the allies shipping line. It began with Operation Ironclad, the seizure of the port of Diego Suarez near the northern tip of the island, on 5 May 1942.[1]

A subsequent campaign to secure the entire island, Operation Streamline Jane, was opened on 10 September. The allies broke into the interior linking up with forces on the coast and secured the island by the end of October. Fighting ceased and an armistice was granted on 6 November.[5] This was the first large scale operation by the allies of World War Two combining sea, land and air forces.[6]

Background

Geopolitical

Antsiranana is a large bay with a fine harbour near the northern tip of the island of Madagascar and has an opening to the east through a narrow channel called Oronjia Pass. The naval base of Antsirane lies on a peninsula between two of the four small bays enclosed within the Antsiranana bay. Antsiranana Bay cuts deeply into the northern tip of Madagascar (Cape Amber), almost severing it from the rest of the island.[7] In the 1880s, the bay was coveted by France, which claimed it as a coaling station for steamships travelling to French possessions further east. The colonization was formalized after the first Franco-Hova War when Queen Ranavalona III signed a treaty on 17 December 1885 giving France a protectorate over the bay and surrounding territory, as well as the islands of Nosy Be and St. Marie de Madagascar. The colony's administration was subsumed into that of French Madagascar in 1897.[8]

In 1941, Antsiranana town, the bay and the channel were well protected by naval shore batteries.[7]

Axis

Following the Japanese conquest of South East Asia east of Burma by the end of February 1942, submarines of the Imperial Japanese Navy were moving freely throughout the north and eastern expanses of the Indian Ocean. In March 1942, Japanese aircraft carriers conducted the Indian Ocean raid upon shipping in the bay of Bengal and bases in Colombo and Trincomalee in Ceylon. This raid drove the British Eastern Fleet out of the area and they were forced to relocate to a new base at Kilindini, near Mombasa, in Kenya.

The move made the British fleet more vulnerable to attack. The possibility of Japanese naval forces using forward bases in Madagascar had to be addressed. The potential use of these facilities particularly threatened Allied merchant shipping, the supply route to the British Eighth Army and also the Eastern Fleet.

Japanese submarines had the longest range of any Axis forces' subs at the time — more than 10,000 miles (16,000 km) in some cases, but being challenged by the U.S. Navy's then-relatively new Gato-class fleet submarines' 11,000 nautical mile (20,370 km) top range figures. If the IJN's subs were able to utilise bases on Madagascar, Allied lines of communication would be affected across a region stretching from the Pacific and Australia, to the Middle East and as far as the South Atlantic.

On 17 December 1941, Vice Admiral Fricke, Chief of Staff of Germany's Maritime Warfare Command (Seekriegsleitung), met Vice Admiral Naokuni Nomura, the Japanese Naval Attaché, in Berlin to discuss the delimitation of respective operational areas between the Kriegsmarine and Imperial Japanese Navy forces. At another meeting on 27 March 1942, Fricke stressed the importance of the Indian Ocean to the Axis powers and expressed the desire that the Japanese begin operations against the northern Indian Ocean sea routes. Fricke further emphasized that Ceylon, the Seychelles and Madagascar should have a higher priority for the Axis navies than operations against Australia.[9] By 8 April, the Japanese announced to Fricke that they intended to commit four or five submarines and two auxiliary cruisers for operations in the western Indian Ocean between Aden and the Cape, but they refused to disclose their plans for operations against Madagascar and Ceylon, only reiterating their commitment to operations in the area.[10]

Allies

The Allies had heard the rumours of Japanese plans for the Indian Ocean and on 27 November 1941, the British Chiefs of Staff discussed the possibility that the Vichy government might cede the whole of Madagascar to Japan, or alternatively permit the Japanese navy to establish bases on the island. British naval advisors urged the occupation of the island as a precautionary measure.[11] On 16 December, General Charles de Gaulle, leader of the Free French in London, sent a letter to the British Prime Minister, Winston Churchill, in which he also urged a Free French operation against Madagascar.[12] Churchill recognised the risk of a Japanese-controlled Madagascar to Indian Ocean shipping, particularly to the important sea route to India and Ceylon (now Sri Lanka), and considered the port of Diego Suarez as the strategic key to Japanese influence in the Indian Ocean. However, he also made it clear to planners that he did not feel Britain had the resources to mount such an operation and, following experience in the Battle of Dakar in September 1940, did not want a joint operation launched by British and Free French forces to secure the island.[12]

By 12 March, Churchill had been convinced of the importance of such an operation and the decision was reached that the planning of the invasion of Madagascar would begin in earnest. It was agreed that the Free French would be explicitly excluded from the operation. As a preliminary battle outline, Churchill gave the following guidelines to the planners[13] and the operation was designated Operation Bonus:[14]

On 14 March, "Force 121" was constituted under the command of Major-General Robert Sturges of the Royal Marines with Rear-Admiral Edward Syfret being placed in command of Naval Force H and the supporting sea force.[15]

Allied preparations

Map of the assault

Force 121 left the Clyde in Scotland on 23 March and joined up with South African-born Admiral Syfret's ships at Freetown in Sierra Leone, proceeding from there in two convoys to their assembly point at Durban on the South African east coast. Here they were joined by the 13th Brigade Group of the 5th Division – General Sturges' force consisting of three infantry brigades, while Admiral Syfret's squadron consisted of the flag battleship HMS Ramillies, the aircraft carriers HMS Illustrious and HMS Indomitable, the cruisers HMS Hermione and HMS Devonshire, eleven destroyers, six minesweepers, six corvettes and auxiliaries. It was a formidable force to bring against the 8,000 men (mostly Malagasy) at Diego Suarez, but the Chiefs of Staff were adamant that the operation was to succeed, preferably without any fighting.[15]

This was to be the first British amphibious assault since the disastrous landings in the Dardanelles twenty-seven years before.[16]

During the assembly in Durban, Field-Marshal Jan Smuts pointed out that the mere seizure of Diego Suarez would be no guarantee against continuing Japanese aggression and urged that the ports of Majunga and Tamatave be occupied as well. This was evaluated by the Chiefs of Staff, but it was decided to retain Diego Suarez as the only objective due to the lack of manpower.[15] Churchill remarked that the only way to permanently secure Madagascar was by means of a strong fleet and adequate air support operating from Ceylon and sent General Archibald Wavell (India Command), a note stating that as soon as the initial objectives had been met, all responsibility for safeguarding Madagascar would be passed on to Wavell. He added that when the Commandos were withdrawn, garrison duties would be performed by two African brigades and one brigade from the Belgian Congo or west coast of Africa.[17]

In March and April, the South African Air Force (SAAF) had conducted reconnaissance flights over Diego Suarez and No. 32, 36 and 37 Coastal Flights were withdrawn from maritime patrol operations and sent to Lindi on the Indian Ocean coast of Tanganyika, with an additional eleven Bristol Beauforts and six Martin Marylands to provide close air support during the planned operations.[7]

Campaign

Allied commanders decided to launch an amphibious assault on Madagascar. The task was Operation Ironclad and executed by Force 121; it would comprise allied naval, land and air forces and be commanded by Major-General Robert Sturges of the Royal Marines. The British Army landing force comprised 29th Independent Infantry Brigade Group, No 5 (Army) Commando and two brigades of the 5th Infantry Division, the latter en route to India with the remainder of their division. The Allied naval contingent consisted of over 50 vessels, drawn from Force H, the British Home Fleet and the British Eastern Fleet, commanded by Rear Admiral Edward Neville Syfret. The fleet included the aircraft carrier Illustrious, her sister ship Indomitable and the ageing battleship Ramillies to cover the landings.

Allied soldiers landing from LCAs at Tamatave in May 1942

Landings (Operation Ironclad)

Following many reconnaissance missions by the SAAF, the first wave of the British 29th Infantry Brigade and No. 5 Commando landed in assault craft on 5 May 1942, follow-up waves were by two brigades of the 5th Infantry Division and Royal Marines. All were carried ashore by landing craft to Courrier Bay and Ambararata Bay, just west of the major port of Diego Suarez (later known as Antsiranana), at the northern tip of Madagascar. A diversionary attack was staged to the east. Air cover was provided mainly by Fairey Albacore and Fairey Swordfish torpedo bombers which attacked Vichy shipping. They were supported by Grumman Martlets (known by the Americans as the F4F Wildcat) fighters from the Fleet Air Arm. A small number of SAAF planes assisted.

The defending Vichy forces, led by Governor General Armand Léon Annet, included about 8,000 troops, of whom about 6,000 were Malagasy tirailleurs (colonial infantry). A large proportion of the rest were Senegalese. Between 1,500 and 3,000 Vichy troops were concentrated around Diego Suarez.[1] However, naval and air defences were relatively light and/or obsolete: eight coastal batteries, two armed merchant cruisers, two sloops, five submarines, 17 Morane-Saulnier 406 fighters and 10 Potez 63 bombers.

Surrendered French troops marching away from their HQ after the British had captured Diego Suarez on 7 May

The beach landings met with virtually no resistance and these troops seized Vichy coastal batteries and barracks. The Courier Bay force - the 17th Infantry Brigade after toiling through mangrove swamp and thick bush took the town of Diego Suarez taking a hundred prisoners. The Ambararata Bay force - the 29th independent brigade headed towards the French naval base of Antisarane.[1] With assistance from six Valentines and six Tetrarch light tanks of 'B' Special Service Squadron they advanced 21 miles overcoming light resistance with bayonet charges.[18] Antisarane itself was heavily defended with trenches, two redoubts, pillboxes and flanked on both sides by impenetrable swamps.[19]

On the morning of 6 May a frontal assault on the defences failed with the loss of three Valentines and two Tetrarchs.[18] Another assault by the South Lancashire's worked their way around the defences but the swamps and bad terrain meant they were broken up into groups. Nevertheless they swung behind the Vichy line and caused chaos - fire was poured on the Vichy defences from behind and the radio station and a barracks were seized.[19] In all 200 prisoners were taken but the South Lancs had to withdraw as communication with the main force was non existent after the radio set had failed. With the French defence highly effective the deadlock was broken when the old destroyer HMS Anthony dashed straight past the harbour defences of Antisarane and landed fifty Royal Marines amidst the Vichy rear area.[19] The Marines created "disturbance in the town out of all proportion to their numbers" taking the French artillery command post along with its barracks and the naval depot. At the same time the troops of the 17th infantry brigade had broken through the defences and were soon marching in the town. The Vichy defence was broken and Antisarane surrendered that evening, although substantial Vichy forces withdrew to the south.[20]

The Japanese submarines I-10, I-16 and I-20 arrived three weeks later on 29 May. I-10's reconnaissance plane spotted HMS Ramillies at anchor in Diego Suarez harbour but the plane was spotted and Ramillies changed her berth. I-20 and I-16 launched two midget submarines, one of which managed to enter the harbour and fired two torpedoes while under depth charge attack from two corvettes. One torpedo seriously damaged Ramillies, while the second sank the 6,993 ton oil tanker British Loyalty (later refloated).[21] Ramillies was later repaired in Durban and Plymouth.

The crew of one of the midget submarines, Lieutenant Saburo Akieda and Petty Officer Masami Takemoto, beached their craft (M-20b) at Nosy Antalikely and moved inland towards their pick-up point near Cape Amber. They were informed-upon when they bought food at the village of Anijabe and both were killed in a firefight with Royal Marines three days later; one Marine was killed in the action as well. The second midget submarine was lost at sea and the body of one of its crew was found washed ashore a day later.[21]

Ground campaign (Operation Streamline Jane)

19 September 1942. Allied troops disembarking from a LCA in Tamatave harbour.

Hostilities continued at a low level for several months. After 19 May two brigades of the 5th Infantry Division were transferred to India. On 8 June, the 22nd (East Africa) Brigade Group arrived on Madagascar[22] The 7th South African Motorized Brigade arrived on 24 June.[23] The 27th (North Rhodesia) Infantry Brigade (including forces from East Africa) landed on 8 August.[24]

On 10 September the 29th Brigade and 22nd Brigade Group made an amphibious landing at Majunga which was another port on the western coast of the island. No. 5 Commando spearheaded the landing and faced machine gun fire but despite this they stormed the quayside, took control of the local post office, stormed the Governor's Residence and raised the Union Jack.[25] Having severed communications with Tannanarive, the allies intended to re-launch the offensive ahead of the rainy season. Progress was slow for the Allied forces though. In addition to occasional small-scale clashes with Vichy forces, they also encountered scores of obstacles erected on the main roads by Vichy soldiers. The Allies eventually captured the capital, Tananarive, without much opposition, and then the town of Ambalavao but the devoutly Vichy Governor Annet had escaped.[26]

Eight days later a British force set out to seize Tamatave. Heavy surf interfered with the operation; as HMS Birmingham's launch was heading into shore it was fired at by French shore batteries and promptly turned around. Birmingham then opened her guns up on the shores batteries and within three minutes the French hauled up the white flag; Tamatave fell into British hands. From there the South Lancashires and the Royal Welch Fusiliers set out to the South to link up with forces there. After they reached Tananarive they pressed on towards Moramanga and on September 25 they linked up with the Kings African Rifles having secured the British lines of communication around the island. At the same time the East African infantry and South African armoured cars set out to find the elusive Governor Annet.[26]

The last major action took place on 18 October, at Andramanalina - a U shaped valley with the meandering Mangarahara River where an ambush was planned for British forces by Vichy troops. The King African Riles split into two columns and marched around the 'U' of the valley and met Vichy troops in the rear and then ambushed them. The Vichy troops suffered heavy losses which resulted in 800 of them surrendering.[26] A week later the Kings African rifles then entered Fianarantosa but found Annet gone, this time near Ihosy 100 miles South of them. The Africans swiftly moved after him but they received an envoy from from Annet asking for terms of surrender - he had had enough and couldn't escape further. An armistice was signed in Ambalavao on 6 November, and Annet surrendered two days later.[27]

The Allies suffered about 500 casualties in the landing at Diego Suarez, and 30 more killed and 90 wounded in the operations which followed on 10 September.

Aftermath

December 1942. Four RAF Westland Lysander aircraft flying over Madagascar following the end of the campaign.

With Madagascar firmly in allied hands the allies established military and naval installations across the island. The island was crucial for the rest of the war - its deep water ports were vital to control the passageway to India and the Persian corridor, and this was now beyond the grasp of the Axis.[26] This was the first large scale operation of World War Two by the allies; combining sea, land and air forces. In the makeshift allied planning of the wars early years, the invasion of Madagascar held a prominent strategic place. [6]

Free French General Paul Legentilhomme was appointed High Commissioner for Madagascar. Like many colonies, Madagascar sought its independence following the war. In 1947, the island experienced the Malagasy Uprising, a costly revolution that was crushed in 1948. It was not until 26 June 1960, about twelve years later, that the Malagasy Republic successfully proclaimed its independence from France.

Campaign service in Madagascar did not qualify for the British and Commonwealth Africa Star. It was instead covered by the 1939–1945 Star.[28]

Order of battle

Allied Forces

A Grumman Martlet of the Fleet Air Arm flying over HMS Warspite during the Madagascar operations
Jacob van Heemskerck, a Dutch cruiser involved in the operations off Madagascar
Modern-day view of Antsiranana Bay
Battleships
HMS Ramillies
HMS Warspite
Aircraft Carriers
HMS Illustrious
HMS Indomitable
Cruisers
HMS Birmingham[29]
HMS Dauntless[29]
HMS Gambia[29]
HMS Hermione
HMS Devonshire
HNLMS Jacob van Heemskerck
Minelayer
HMS Manxman[29]
Monitor
HMS Erebus[29]
Seaplane Carrier
HMS Albatross[29]
Destroyers
HMS Active
HMS Anthony
HMS Arrow[29]
HMS Blackmore[29]
HMS Duncan
HMS Fortune[29]
HMS Foxhound[29]
HMS Inconstant
HMS Hotspur[29]
HMS Javelin
HMS Laforey
HMS Lightning
HMS Lookout
HMAS Napier[29]
HMAS Nepal[29]
HMAS Nizam
HMAS Norman
HMS Pakenham
HMS Paladin
HMS Panther
HNLMS Van Galen[29]
HNLMS Tjerk Hiddes[29]
Corvettes
HMS Freesia
HMS Auricula
HMS Nigella
HMS Fritillary
HMS Genista
HMS Cyclamen
HMS Thyme
HMS Jasmine
Minesweepers
HMS Cromer
HMS Poole
HMS Romney
HMS Cromarty
Assault transports
HMS Winchester Castle
HMS Royal Ulsterman
HMS Keren
HMS Karanja
MS Sobieski (Polish)
Special ships
HMS Derwentdale (LCA)
HMS Bachaquero (LST)
Troop ships...
SS Oronsay
SS Duchess of Atholl
RMS Franconia
Stores and MT ships
SS Empire Kingsley
M/S Thalatta
SS Mahout
SS City of Hong Kong
SS Mairnbank
SS Martand II[30]

Ground forces

A Valentine tank of the type used during the invasion
Organization of British ground forces for Operation Ironclad, during the invasion of Madagascar 5 May 1942[31][32]
29th Infantry Brigade (independent) arrived via amphibious landing near Diego Suarez on 5 May 1942
2nd South Lancashire Regiment
2nd East Lancashire Regiment
1st Royal Scots Fusiliers
2nd Royal Welch Fusiliers
455th Light Battery (Royal Artillery)
MG company
'B' Special Service Squadron with 6 Valentine and 6 Tetrarch tanks
Commandos arrived via amphibious landing near Diego Suarez on 5 May 1942
No. 5 Commando
British 17th Infantry Brigade Group (of 5th Division) landed near Diego Suarez as second wave on 5 May 1942
2nd Royal Scots Fusiliers
2nd Northamptonshire Regiment
6th Seaforth Highlanders
9th Field Regiment (Royal Artillery)
British 13th Infantry Brigade (of 5th Division) landed near Diego Suarez as third wave on 6 May 1942. Departed 19 May 1942 for India
2nd Cameronians
2nd Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers
2nd Wiltshire Regiment
East African Brigade Group arrived 22 June to replace 13 and 17 Brigades
South African 7th Motorised Brigade
Rhodesian 27th Infantry Brigade arrived 8 August 1942; departed 29 June 1944
2nd Northern Rhodesia Regiment
3rd Northern Rhodesia Regiment
4th Northern Rhodesia Regiment
55th (Tanganyika) Light Battery
57th (East African) Field Battery[30]

Fleet Air Arm

Aboard HMS Illustrious
881 Squadron - 12 Grumman F4F-4 Wildcat (Martlet Mk.II)
882 Squadron - 8 Grumman F4F-4 Wildcat (Martlet Mk.II) 1 Fairey Fulmar
810 Squadron - 10 Fairey Swordfish
829 Squadron - 10 Fairey Swordfish
Aboard HMS Indomitable
800 Squadron - 8 Fairey Fulmar
806 Squadron - 4 Fairey Fulmar
880 Squadron - 6 Hawker Sea Hurricane Mk IA
827 Squadron - 12 Fairey Albacore
831 Squadron - 12 Fairey Albacore[30]

Vichy France

Merchant Cruiser Bougainville 2
Sloop D'Entrecasteaux
Submarines
Bévéziers
Héros
Monge[30]

Land forces

The following order of battle represents the Malagasy and Vichy French forces on the island directly after the initial Ironclad landings.[33]

Members of the Japanese imperial navy midget submarine attack group which included those who carried out the attacks on Diego Suarez.
West coast
Two platoons of reservists and volunteers at Nossi-Bé
Two companies of the Régiment Mixte Malgache (RMM – Mixed Madagascar Regiment) at Ambanja
One battalion of the 1er RMM at Majunga
East coast
One battalion of the 1er RMM at Tamatave
One artillery section (65mm) at Tamatave
One company of the 1er RMM at Brickaville
Centre of the island
Three battalions of the 1er RMM at Tananarive
One motorised reconnaissance detachment at Tananarive
Emyrne battery at Tananarive
One artillery section (65mm) at Tananarive
One engineer company at Tananarive
One company of the 1er RMM at Mevatanana
One company of the Bataillon de Tirailleurs Malgaches (BTM - Malagasy Tirailleurs Battalion) at Fianarantsoa
South of the island
Other
One company of the BTM at Fort Dauphin
One company of the BTM at Tuléar

Japan

See also

Footnotes

  1. 1 2 3 4 Rigge pp 103-04
  2. 1 2 3 Wessels 1996.
  3. Stapleton, Timothy J. A Military History of Africa p. 225
  4. Winston Churchill, Prime Minister (10 November 1942). http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/commons/1942/nov/10/madagascar-operations#column_2259 |chapter-url= missing title (help). Parliamentary Debates (Hansard). House of Commons.
  5. Thomas 1996.
  6. 1 2 Rigge p. 100
  7. 1 2 3 Turner, Gordon-Cummings & Betzler 1961, p. 133.
  8. "History of Madagascar". History World. Archived from the original on 23 October 2010. Retrieved 30 October 2013.
  9. Turner, Gordon-Cummings & Betzler 1961, p. 116.
  10. Turner, Gordon-Cummings & Betzler 1961, p. 117.
  11. Turner, Gordon-Cummings & Betzler 1961, p. 131.
  12. 1 2 Churchill 1950, p. 223.
  13. 1 2 Churchill 1950, p. 225.
  14. Churchill 1950, p. 229.
  15. 1 2 3 Turner, Gordon-Cummings & Betzler 1961, p. 132.
  16. Churchill 1950, p. 230.
  17. Churchill 1950, p. 231.
  18. 1 2 Flint, pp. 68-69
  19. 1 2 3 Rigge pp.105-06
  20. Combined Operations: the Official Story of the Commandos. Great Britain: Combined Operations Command. 1943. pp. 101–109. ISBN 9781417987412.
  21. 1 2 Rigge pp. 107-08
  22. Joslen 2003, pp. 421–422.
  23. http://books.stonebooks.com/armies/unit/SA110/
  24. Joslen 2003, pp. 425–426.
  25. "Operation Ironclad: 5–7 May 1942". www.combinedops.com.
  26. 1 2 3 4 Rigge pp 110-11
  27. "World Battlefronts: Madagascar Surrenders". Time Magazine. November 16, 1942.
  28. "Medals: campaigns, descriptions & eligibility", Guidance, UK: Government.
  29. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Mason RN, Lt Cdr (Rtd) Geoffrey B (2003). "Dutch HNethMS TJERK HIDDES (G 16), ex-HMS NONPAREIL - N-class Destroyer". SERVICE HISTORIES of ROYAL NAVY WARSHIPS in WORLD WAR 2. Retrieved 9 Nov 2014.
  30. 1 2 3 4 "Operation Ironclad: Invasion of Madagascar". Retrieved 2 November 2010.
  31. Nafziger, George. "Operation Ironclad Invasion of Madagascar 5 May 1942" (PDF). United States Army Combined Arms Research Library. Retrieved 18 October 2016.
  32. Nafziger, George. "British Infantry Brigades 1st thru 215th 1939-1945" (PDF). United States Army Combined Arms Research Library. Retrieved 18 October 2016.
  33. "Madagascar, Ordres de bataille" (in French). Retrieved 30 October 2013.

References

  • Churchill, Winston (1950). The Hinge of Fate. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. OCLC 396148. 
  • Joslen, H.F. (2003). Orders of Battle, United Kingdom and Colonial Formations and Units in the Second World War, 1939–1945. I. London; Uckfield: HM Stationery Office; Naval & Military. ISBN 1843424746. 
  • Flint, Keith (2006). Airborne Armour: Tetrarch, Locust, Hamilcar and the 6th Airborne Armoured Reconnaissance Regiment 1938–1950. Helion & Company. ISBN 1-874622-37-X. 
  • Rigge, Simon (1980). War in the Outposts. World War II: Time-Life International. 24. Time-Life Books. ISBN 9780809433797. 
  • Shores, Christopher (1996). Dust Clouds in the Middle East: Air War for East Africa, Iraq, Syria, Iran and Madagascar, 1940–42. London: Grub Street. 
  • Smith, Colin (2010). England's Last War Against France: Fighting Vichy 1940-42. Hachette UK. ISBN 9780297857815. 
  • Thomas, Martin (December 1996). "Imperial Backwater or Strategic Outpost? The British Takeover of Vichy Madagascar, 1942". The Historical Journal. Cambridge University Press. 39 (4): 1049–74. JSTOR 2639867. doi:10.1017/s0018246x00024754. 
  • Turner, Leonard Charles Frederick; Gordon-Cummings, H.R; Betzler, J.E. (1961). Turner, L.C.F., ed. War in the Southern Oceans: 1939–1945. Cape Town: Oxford University Press. OCLC 42990496. 
  • Wessels, André (June 1996). "South Africa and the War against Japan, 1941–1945". Military History Journal. South African Military History Society. 10 (3). 
  • Jennings, Eric T. (2001). Vichy in the Tropics: Petain's National Revolution in Madagascar, Guadeloupe, and Indochina, 1940-44. Stanford: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0804750475. 

Further reading

  • Harrison, E.D.R. (April 1999). "British Subversion in French East Africa, 1941–42: SOE's Todd Mission". English Historical Review. 114 (456): 339–369. JSTOR 580082. doi:10.2307/580082. 
  • Nativel, Eric (1998). "La «guérilla» des troupes vichystes à Madasgar en 1942". Revue Historique des Armées. 1. 
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