Oncology
A coronal CT scan showing a malignant mesothelioma, indicated by the asterisk and the arrows | |
Focus | Cancerous tumor |
---|---|
Subdivisions | Medical oncology, radiation oncology, surgical oncology |
Significant tests | Tumor markers, TNM staging, CT scans, MRI |
Oncology is a branch of medicine that deals with the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of cancer. A medical professional who practices oncology is an oncologist.[1] The name's etymological origin is the Greek word ὄγκος (ónkos), meaning "tumor", "volume" or "mass".[2]
The three components which have improved survival in cancer are:
- Prevention - This is by reduction of risk factors like tobacco and alcohol consumption[3]
- Early diagnosis - Screening of common cancers[4] and comprehensive diagnosis and staging
- Treatment - Multimodality management[5] by discussion in tumor board and treatment in a comprehensive cancer centre[6]
Cancers are often managed through discussion on multi-disciplinary cancer conferences[7] where medical oncologist, surgical oncologist, radiation oncologist, pathologist, radiologist and organ specific oncologists meet to find the best possible management for an individual patient considering the physical, social, psychological, emotional and financial status of the patients. It is very important for oncologists to keep updated of the latest advancements in oncology, as changes in management of cancer are quite common. All eligible patients in whom cancer progresses and for whom no standard of care treatment options are available should be enrolled in a clinical trial.
Risk factors
- Tobacco
- It is the leading cause of cancer and of death from cancer. Smoking is associated with increased risk of cancers of lung, larynx, mouth, oesophagus, throat, bladder, kidney, liver, stomach, pancreas, colon, rectum, cervix and acute myeloid leukemia. Smokeless tobacco (snuff or chewing tobacco) is associated with increased risks of cancers of the mouth, oesophagus, and pancreas.[8]
- Alcohol
- It can increase your risk of cancer of the mouth, throat, oesophagus, larynx, liver and breast. The risk of cancer is much higher for those who drink alcohol and also use tobacco.[9]
- Obesity
- Obese individuals have an increased risk of cancers of breast, colon, rectum, endometrium, oesophagus, kidney, pancreas, and gallbladder.[10]
- Age
- Advanced age is a risk factor for many cancers. The median age of cancer diagnosis is 66 years.[11]
Screening
Screening is recommended for cancers of breast,[12] cervix,[13] colon[14] and lung.[15]
Symptoms
Symptoms usually depend on the site and type of cancer.
- Breast cancer
- Lump in breast and axilla associated with or without ulceration or bloody nipple discharge.[16]
- Endometrial cancer
- Bleeding per vagina.[17]
- Cervix cancer
- Bleeding after sexual intercourse.[18]
- Ovary cancer
- Nonspecific symptoms like abdominal distension, dyspepsia.[19]
- Lung cancer
- Persistent cough, breathlessness, blood in the sputum, hoarseness of voice.[20]
- Head and neck cancer
- Non-healing ulcer or growth, lump in the neck.[21]
- Brain cancer
- Persistent headache, vomiting, loss of consciousness, double vision.[22]
- Thyroid cancer
- Lump in the neck.[23]
- Oesophagus cancer
- Painful swallowing predominantly to solid food, weight loss.[24]
- Stomach cancer
- Vomiting, dyspepsia, weight loss.[25]
- Colon & rectal cancer
- Bleeding per rectum, alteration of bowel habits.[26]
- Liver cancer
- Jaundice, pain and mass in right upper abdomen.[27]
- Pancreatic cancer
- Weight loss, jaundice.[28]
- Skin cancer
- Non-healing ulcer or growth, mole with sudden increase in size, irregular border, induration or pain.[29]
- Kidney cancer
- Blood in urine, abdominal lump.[30]
- Bladder cancer
- Blood in urine.[31]
- Prostate cancer
- Urgency, hesitancy and frequency while passing urine, bony pain.[32]
- Testis cancer
- Swelling of testis, back pain, dyspnoea.[33]
- Bone cancer
- Pain and swelling of bones.[34]
- Lymphoma
- Fever, weight loss more than 10% body weight in preceding 6 months and drenching night sweats which constitutes the B symptoms, lump in neck, axilla or groin.[35]
- Blood cancer
- Bleeding manifestations including bleeding gums, bleeding from nose, blood in vomitus, blood in sputum, blood stained urine, black coloured stools, fever, lump in neck, axilla or groin, lump in upper abdomen.[20]
Diagnosis and staging
Diagnostic and staging investigations depend on the site and type of malignancy
Blood cancer
Blood investigations including Haemoglobin, Total leucocyte count, Platelet count, Peripheral Smear, Red cell indices
Bone marrow studies including aspiration, Flow-cytometry,[36] Cytogenetics,[37] Fluorescent in situ hybridisation and molecular studies.[38]
Lymphoma
Excision biopsy of lymph node for Histopathological Examination (HPE),[39] Immuno-histochemistry (IHC)[40] and molecular studies.[41]
Blood investigations including Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), Serum Uric Acid, Renal Functions.[42]
Imaging tests like Computerised Tomography (CT), Positron emission tomography (PET CT).[43]
Bone marrow biopsy.[44]
Solid tumors
Biopsy for histopathology & IHC.[45]
Imaging tests like Roentgenogram (X-ray), Ultrasonography, Computerised tomography (CT), Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) and PET CT.[46]
Endoscopy including Naso-pharyngoscopy, Direct & Indirect Laryngoscopy, Upper Gastrointestinal Endoscopy, Colonoscopy, Cystoscopy.
tumor markers including alphafetoprotein (AFP),[47] Beta Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (HCG),[47] Carcinoembionic Antigen (CEA),[48] CA 125,[49] Prostate specific antigen (PSA).[50]
Treatment
Treatment depends on the site and type of cancer.
Solid tumors
- Breast cancer
- Treatment options include surgery, radiation, chemotherapy, hormonal therapy and targeted therapy (Her 2 neu inhibitors).[51]
- Cervix cancer
- Treatment options include radiation, surgery and chemotherapy.[52]
- Endometrial cancer
- Treatment options include surgery, radiation and chemotherapy.[53]
- Ovary cancer
- Treatment options include surgery, chemotherapy and targeted therapy (VEGF inhibitors).[54]
- Lung cancer
- Treatment options include surgery, radiation, chemotherapy and targeted therapy (EGFR & ALK inhibitors).[55]
- Head & Neck Cancer
- Treatment options include surgery, radiation, chemotherapy and targeted therapy (EGFR inhibitors).[56]
- Brain cancer
- Treatment options include surgery, radiation, chemotherapy and targeted therapy (VEGF inhibitors).[51]
- Thyroid cancer
- Treatment options include surgery and radioactive iodine.[57]
- Oesophageal cancer
- Treatment options include radiation, chemotherapy and surgery.[58]
- Stomach cancer
- Treatment options include chemotherapy, surgery, radiation and targeted therapy (Her 2 neu inhibitors).[59]
- Colon cancer
- Treatment options include surgery, chemotherapy and targeted therapy (EGFR & VEGF inhibitors).[60]
- Rectum cancer
- Treatment options include chemotherapy, radiation, surgery.[61]
- Liver cancer
- Treatment options include surgery, Trans-arterial chemotherapy (TACE), Radio-frequency abalation (RFA) and multi-kinase (Sorafenib).[62]
- Pancreas cancer
- Treatment options include surgery, radiation and chemotherapy.[63]
- Skin cancer
- Treatment options include surgery, radiation, targeted therapy (BRAF & MEK inhibitors), Immunotherapy (CTLA 4 & PD 1 inhibitors) and chemotherapy.[64]
- Kidney cancer
- Treatment options include surgery, multi-kinase inhibitors and targeted therapy (mTOR & VEGF inhibitors).[65]
- Bladder cancer
- Treatment options include surgery, radiation and chemotherapy.[66]
- Prostate cancer
- Treatment options include surgery, radiation, chemotherapy, anti-androgens and immunotherapy.[67]
- Testis cancer
- Treatment options include surgery, chemotherapy and radiation.[68]
- Bone cancer
- Treatment options include surgery, chemotherapy and radiation.[69]
Lymphoma
It includes Hodgkin lymphoma (HL) and non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL):
- Hodgkin lymphoma (HL)
- Chemotherapy with ABVD or BEACOPP regimen and Involved field radiation therapy (IFRT).[70]
- Non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL)
- Chemo-immunotherapy (R-CHOP) for B cell lymphomas and chemotherapy (CHOP) for T cell lymphomas.[71]
Blood cancer
Includes acute and chronic leukemias. Acute leukemias includes acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) and acute myeloid leukemia (AML). Chronic leukemias include chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) and chronic myeloid leukemia (CML).
- Acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL)
- Intensive chemotherapy phase for initial 6 months and maintenance chemotherapy for 2 years. Prophylactic cranial and stem cell transplantation for high-risk patients.[72]
- Acute myeloid leukemia (AML)
- Induction with chemotherapy (Daunorubicin + Cytarabine) followed by consolidation chemotherapy (High dose cytarabine). Stem cell transplantation for high-risk patients.[73]
- Chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL): Chemo-immunotherapy (FCR or BR regimen) for symptomatic patients.[74]
- Chronic myeloid leukemia (CML)
- Targeted therapy with tyrosine kinase inhibitor (Imatinib) as first-line treatment.[75]
Specialties
- The three main divisions:
- Medical oncology: focuses on treatment of cancer with chemotherapy, targeted therapy, immunotherapy and hormonal therapy.[76]
- Surgical oncology: focuses on treatment of cancer with surgery.[77]
- Radiation oncology: focuses on treatment of cancer with radiation.[77]
- Sub-specialties in Oncology:
- Neuro-oncology: focuses on cancers of brain.
- Ocular oncology: focuses on cancers of eye.[78]
- Head & Neck oncology: focuses on cancers of oral cavity, nasal cavity, oropharynx, hypopharyx and larynx.[79]
- Thoracic oncology: focuses on cancers of lung, mediastinum, oesophagus and pleura.[80]
- Breast oncology: focuses on cancers of breast
- Gastrointestinal oncology: focuses on cancers of stomach, colon, rectum, anal canal, liver, gallbladder, pancreas.[81]
- Bone & Musculoskeletal oncology: focuses on cancers of bones and soft tissue.[82]
- Genitourinary oncology: focuses on cancers of genital and urinary system.[83]
- Gynecologic oncology: focuses on cancers of the female reproductive system.[84]
- Pediatric oncology: concerned with the treatment of cancer in children.[85]
- Hemato oncology: focuses on cancers of blood and stem cell transplantation
- Preventive oncology: focuses on epidemiology & prevention of cancer.[86]
- Geriatric oncology: focuses on cancers in elderly population.[87]
- Pain & Palliative oncology: focuses on treatment of end stage cancer to alleviate the suffering.[88]
- Molecular oncology: focuses on molecular diagnostic methods in oncology.[89]
- Oncopathology: A specialty of Pathology that focuses on the histopathological diagnosis of cancer. As a significant portion of all general pathology practice is concerned with cancer, the practice of oncology is deeply tied to, and dependent upon, the work of both anatomical and clinical pathologists.[77]
- Nuclear medicine oncology: focuses on diagnosis and treatment of cancer with radiopharmaceuticals.
- Psycho-oncology: focuses on psychosocial issues on diagnosis and treatment of cancer patients.
- Veterinary oncology: focuses on treatment of cancer in animals.[90]
Progress and future
- Leukemia,[91] Lymphoma,[92] Germ cell tumors[93] and early stage solid tumors which were once incurable have become curable malignancies now
- Survival of cancer has significantly improved over the past years due to improved screening, diagnostic methods and treatment options with targeted therapy.
- Large multi-centric Phase III randomised controlled clinical trials by the National Surgical Adjuvant Breast & Bowel Project (NSABP)[94] Medical Research Council (MRC),[95] the European Organisation for Research and Treatment of Cancer (EORTC),[96] and National Cancer Institute (NCI) have contributed significantly to the improvement in survival.
See also
References
- ↑ Maureen McCutcheon. Where Have My Eyebrows Gone?. Cengage Learning, 2001. ISBN 0766839346. Page 5.
- ↑ Types of Oncologists, American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO).
- ↑ Stein, C. J.; Colditz, G. A. (2004-01-26). "Modifiable risk factors for cancer". British Journal of Cancer. 90 (2): 299–303. ISSN 0007-0920. PMC 2410150
. PMID 14735167. doi:10.1038/sj.bjc.6601509.
- ↑ Hristova, L.; Hakama, M. (1997-01-01). "Effect of screening for cancer in the Nordic countries on deaths, cost and quality of life up to the year 2017". Acta Oncologica. 36 Suppl 9: 1–60. ISSN 0284-186X. PMID 9143316.
- ↑ Forbes, J. F. (1982-08-01). "Multimodality treatment of cancer". The Australian and New Zealand Journal of Surgery. 52 (4): 341–346. ISSN 0004-8682. PMID 6956307. doi:10.1111/j.1445-2197.1982.tb06005.x.
- ↑ Bristow, Robert E.; Chang, Jenny; Ziogas, Argyrios; Campos, Belinda; Chavez, Leo R.; Anton-Culver, Hoda (2015-05-01). "Impact of National Cancer Institute Comprehensive Cancer Centers on ovarian cancer treatment and survival". Journal of the American College of Surgeons. 220 (5): 940–950. ISSN 1879-1190. PMID 25840536. doi:10.1016/j.jamcollsurg.2015.01.056.
- ↑ Croke, J.M.; El-Sayed, S. (2012-08-01). "Multidisciplinary management of cancer patients: chasing a shadow or real value? An overview of the literature". Current Oncology. 19 (4): e232–e238. ISSN 1198-0052. PMC 3410834
. PMID 22876151. doi:10.3747/co.19.944.
- ↑ "Tobacco". National Cancer Institute. Retrieved 2016-01-18.
- ↑ "Alcohol". National Cancer Institute. Retrieved 2016-01-18.
- ↑ "Obesity". National Cancer Institute. Retrieved 2016-01-18.
- ↑ "Age". National Cancer Institute. Retrieved 2016-01-18.
- ↑ Gøtzsche, Peter C.; Jørgensen, Karsten Juhl (2013-01-01). "Screening for breast cancer with mammography". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 6: CD001877. ISSN 1469-493X. PMID 23737396. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD001877.pub5.
- ↑ Behtash, Nadereh; Mehrdad, Nili (2006-12-01). "Cervical cancer: screening and prevention". Asian Pacific Journal of Cancer Prevention. 7 (4): 683–686. ISSN 1513-7368. PMID 17250453.
- ↑ Winawer, Sidney; Fletcher, Robert; Rex, Douglas; Bond, John; Burt, Randall; Ferrucci, Joseph; Ganiats, Theodore; Levin, Theodore; Woolf, Steven (2003-02-01). "Colorectal cancer screening and surveillance: clinical guidelines and rationale-Update based on new evidence". Gastroenterology. 124 (2): 544–560. ISSN 0016-5085. PMID 12557158. doi:10.1053/gast.2003.50044.
- ↑ Humphrey, Linda L.; Deffebach, Mark; Pappas, Miranda; Baumann, Christina; Artis, Kathryn; Mitchell, Jennifer Priest; Zakher, Bernadette; Fu, Rongwei; Slatore, Christopher G. (2013-09-17). "Screening for lung cancer with low-dose computed tomography: a systematic review to update the US Preventive services task force recommendation". Annals of Internal Medicine. 159 (6): 411–420. ISSN 1539-3704. PMID 23897166. doi:10.7326/0003-4819-159-6-201309170-00690.
- ↑ "Symptoms of Breast Cancer | Breastcancer.org". Breastcancer.org. Retrieved 2016-01-17.
- ↑ Information, National Center for Biotechnology; Pike, U. S. National Library of Medicine 8600 Rockville; MD, Bethesda; Usa, 20894. "Endometrial Cancer: Symptoms - National Library of Medicine". PubMed Health. Retrieved 2016-01-17.
- ↑ Information, National Center for Biotechnology; Pike, U. S. National Library of Medicine 8600 Rockville; MD, Bethesda; Usa, 20894. "Cervical Cancer: Symptoms - National Library of Medicine". PubMed Health. Retrieved 2016-01-17.
- ↑ Olson, S. H.; Mignone, L.; Nakraseive, C.; Caputo, T. A.; Barakat, R. R.; Harlap, S. (2001-08-01). "Symptoms of ovarian cancer". Obstetrics and Gynecology. 98 (2): 212–217. ISSN 0029-7844. PMID 11506835. doi:10.1016/s0029-7844(01)01457-0.
- 1 2 Information, National Center for Biotechnology; Pike, U. S. National Library of Medicine 8600 Rockville; MD, Bethesda; Usa, 20894. "Lung Cancer: Symptoms - National Library of Medicine". PubMed Health. Retrieved 2016-01-17.
- ↑ Mehanna, H.; Paleri, V.; West, C. M. L.; Nutting, C. (2010-01-01). "Head and neck cancer--Part 1: Epidemiology, presentation, and prevention". BMJ (Clinical research ed.). 341: c4684. ISSN 1756-1833. PMID 20855405. doi:10.1136/bmj.c4684.
- ↑ Snyder, H.; Robinson, K.; Shah, D.; Brennan, R.; Handrigan, M. (1993-06-01). "Signs and symptoms of patients with brain tumors presenting to the emergency department". The Journal of Emergency Medicine. 11 (3): 253–258. ISSN 0736-4679. PMID 8340578. doi:10.1016/0736-4679(93)90042-6.
- ↑ Information, National Center for Biotechnology; Pike, U. S. National Library of Medicine 8600 Rockville; MD, Bethesda; Usa, 20894. "Thyroid Cancer: Symptoms - National Library of Medicine". PubMed Health. Retrieved 2016-01-17.
- ↑ Information, National Center for Biotechnology; Pike, U. S. National Library of Medicine 8600 Rockville; MD, Bethesda; Usa, 20894. "Esophageal Cancer: Symptoms - National Library of Medicine". PubMed Health. Retrieved 2016-01-17.
- ↑ Information, National Center for Biotechnology; Pike, U. S. National Library of Medicine 8600 Rockville; MD, Bethesda; Usa, 20894. "Stomach Cancer (Gastric Cancer): Symptoms - National Library of Medicine". PubMed Health. Retrieved 2016-01-17.
- ↑ Information, National Center for Biotechnology; Pike, U. S. National Library of Medicine 8600 Rockville; MD, Bethesda; Usa, 20894. "Colon Cancer: Symptoms - National Library of Medicine". PubMed Health. Retrieved 2016-01-17.
- ↑ Information, National Center for Biotechnology; Pike, U. S. National Library of Medicine 8600 Rockville; MD, Bethesda; Usa, 20894. "Adult Primary Liver Cancer: Symptoms - National Library of Medicine". PubMed Health. Retrieved 2016-01-17.
- ↑ Holly, Elizabeth A.; Chaliha, Indranushi; Bracci, Paige M.; Gautam, Manjushree (2004-06-01). "Signs and symptoms of pancreatic cancer: a population-based case-control study in the San Francisco Bay area". Clinical Gastroenterology and Hepatology. 2 (6): 510–517. ISSN 1542-3565. PMID 15181621. doi:10.1016/s1542-3565(04)00171-5.
- ↑ Information, National Center for Biotechnology; Pike, U. S. National Library of Medicine 8600 Rockville; MD, Bethesda; Usa, 20894. "Nonmelanoma Skin Cancer: Symptoms - National Library of Medicine". PubMed Health. Retrieved 2016-01-17.
- ↑ Information, National Center for Biotechnology; Pike, U. S. National Library of Medicine 8600 Rockville; MD, Bethesda; Usa, 20894. "Renal Cell Cancer: Symptoms - National Library of Medicine". PubMed Health. Retrieved 2016-01-17.
- ↑ Shephard, Elizabeth A.; Stapley, Sally; Neal, Richard D.; Rose, Peter; Walter, Fiona M.; Hamilton, William T. (2012-09-01). "Clinical features of bladder cancer in primary care". The British Journal of General Practice: The Journal of the Royal College of General Practitioners. 62 (602): e598–604. ISSN 1478-5242. PMC 3426598
. PMID 22947580. doi:10.3399/bjgp12X654560.
- ↑ Information, National Center for Biotechnology; Pike, U. S. National Library of Medicine 8600 Rockville; MD, Bethesda; Usa, 20894. "Prostate Cancer: Symptoms - National Library of Medicine". PubMed Health. Retrieved 2016-01-17.
- ↑ Information, National Center for Biotechnology; Pike, U. S. National Library of Medicine 8600 Rockville; MD, Bethesda; Usa, 20894. "Testicular Cancer: Symptoms - National Library of Medicine". PubMed Health. Retrieved 2016-01-17.
- ↑ Clohisy, Denis R.; Mantyh, Patrick W. (2003-10-01). "Bone cancer pain". Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research (415 Suppl): S279–288. ISSN 0009-921X. PMID 14600620. doi:10.1097/01.blo.0000093059.96273.56.
- ↑ Vuckovic, J.; Zemunik, T.; Forenpoher, G.; Knezevic, N.; Stula, N.; Dubravcic, M.; Capkun, V. (1994-04-01). "Prognostic value of B-symptoms in low-grade non-hodgkin's lymphomas". Leukemia & Lymphoma. 13 (3-4): 357–358. ISSN 1042-8194. PMID 8049656. doi:10.3109/10428199409056302.
- ↑ Givan, Alice L. (2011-01-01). "Flow cytometry: an introduction". Methods in Molecular Biology (Clifton, N.J.). 699: 1–29. ISSN 1940-6029. PMID 21116976. doi:10.1007/978-1-61737-950-5_1.
- ↑ Mrózek, Krzysztof; Heerema, Nyla A.; Bloomfield, Clara D. (2004-06-01). "Cytogenetics in acute leukemia". Blood Reviews. 18 (2): 115–136. ISSN 0268-960X. PMID 15010150. doi:10.1016/S0268-960X(03)00040-7.
- ↑ Bacher, Ulrike; Schnittger, Susanne; Haferlach, Claudia; Haferlach, Torsten (2009-01-01). "Molecular diagnostics in acute leukemias". Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine. 47 (11): 1333–1341. ISSN 1437-4331. PMID 19817644. doi:10.1515/CCLM.2009.324.
- ↑ Eberle, Franziska C.; Mani, Haresh; Jaffe, Elaine S. (2009-04-01). "Histopathology of Hodgkin's lymphoma". Cancer Journal (Sudbury, Mass.). 15 (2): 129–137. ISSN 1528-9117. PMID 19390308. doi:10.1097/PPO.0b013e31819e31cf.
- ↑ Rao, I. Satish (2010-01-01). "Role of immunohistochemistry in lymphoma". Indian Journal of Medical and Paediatric Oncology. 31 (4): 145–147. ISSN 0971-5851. PMC 3089924
. PMID 21584221. doi:10.4103/0971-5851.76201.
- ↑ Arber, Daniel A. (2000-11-01). "Molecular Diagnostic Approach to Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma". The Journal of molecular diagnostics : JMD. 2 (4): 178–190. ISSN 1525-1578. PMC 1906917
. PMID 11232108. doi:10.1016/s1525-1578(10)60636-8.
- ↑ Hande, K. R.; Garrow, G. C. (1993-02-01). "Acute tumor lysis syndrome in patients with high-grade non-Hodgkin's lymphoma". The American Journal of Medicine. 94 (2): 133–139. ISSN 0002-9343. PMID 8430709. doi:10.1016/0002-9343(93)90174-n.
- ↑ D'souza, Maria M; Jaimini, Abhinav; Bansal, Abhishek; Tripathi, Madhavi; Sharma, Rajnish; Mondal, Anupam; Tripathi, Rajendra Prashad (2013-01-01). "FDG-PET/CT in lymphoma". The Indian Journal of Radiology & Imaging. 23 (4): 354–365. ISSN 0971-3026. PMC 3932580
. PMID 24604942. doi:10.4103/0971-3026.125626.
- ↑ Kumar, Suneet; Rau, Aarathi R.; Naik, Ramadas; Kini, Hema; Mathai, Alka M.; Pai, Muktha R.; Khadilkar, Urmila N. (2009-09-01). "Bone marrow biopsy in non-Hodgkin lymphoma: a morphological study". Indian Journal of Pathology & Microbiology. 52 (3): 332–338. ISSN 0974-5130. PMID 19679954. doi:10.4103/0377-4929.54987.
- ↑ Pillai, R.; Kannan, S.; Chandran, G. J. (1993-04-01). "The immunohistochemistry of solid tumours: potential problems for new laboratories". The National Medical Journal of India. 6 (2): 71–75. ISSN 0970-258X. PMID 8477213.
- ↑ Franzius, C. (2010-08-01). "FDG-PET/CT in pediatric solid tumors". The quarterly journal of nuclear medicine and molecular imaging: official publication of the Italian Association of Nuclear Medicine (AIMN) [and] the International Association of Radiopharmacology (IAR), [and] Section of the Society of Radiopharmaceutical Chemistry and Biology. 54 (4): 401–410. ISSN 1824-4785. PMID 20823808.
- 1 2 Bassetto, M. A.; Franceschi, T.; Lenotti, M.; Parise, G.; Pancheri, F.; Sabbioni, R.; Zaninelli, M.; Cetto, G. L. (1994-01-01). "AFP and HCG in germ cell tumors". The International Journal of Biological Markers. 9 (1): 29–32. ISSN 0393-6155. PMID 7519651.
- ↑ Barone, C.; Astone, A.; Cassano, A.; Garufi, C.; Astone, P.; Grieco, A.; Noviello, M. R.; Ricevuto, E.; Albanese, C. (1990-01-01). "Advanced colon cancer: staging and prognosis by CEA test". Oncology. 47 (2): 128–132. ISSN 0030-2414. PMID 2314825.
- ↑ Scholler, Nathalie; Urban, Nicole (2007-12-01). "CA125 in Ovarian Cancer". Biomarkers in medicine. 1 (4): 513–523. ISSN 1752-0363. PMC 2872496
. PMID 20477371. doi:10.2217/17520363.1.4.513.
- ↑ Gjertson, Carl K.; Albertsen, Peter C. (2011-01-01). "Use and assessment of PSA in prostate cancer". The Medical Clinics of North America. 95 (1): 191–200. ISSN 1557-9859. PMID 21095422. doi:10.1016/j.mcna.2010.08.024.
- 1 2 Breast Cancer Treatment (PDQ®): Patient Version. Bethesda (MD): National Cancer Institute (US). 2002-01-01. PMID 26389406.
- ↑ Cervical Cancer Treatment (PDQ®): Health Professional Version. Bethesda (MD): National Cancer Institute (US). 2002-01-01. PMID 26389493.
- ↑ Endometrial Cancer Treatment (PDQ®): Patient Version. Bethesda (MD): National Cancer Institute (US). 2002-01-01. PMID 26389334.
- ↑ Aletti, Giovanni D.; Gallenberg, Mary M.; Cliby, William A.; Jatoi, Aminah; Hartmann, Lynn C. (2007-06-01). "Current management strategies for ovarian cancer". Mayo Clinic Proceedings. 82 (6): 751–770. ISSN 0025-6196. PMID 17550756. doi:10.4065/82.6.751.
- ↑ Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer Treatment (PDQ®): Patient Version. Bethesda (MD): National Cancer Institute (US). 2002-01-01. PMID 26389355.
- ↑ Argiris, Athanassios; Karamouzis, Michalis V.; Raben, David; Ferris, Robert L. (2008-05-17). "Head and neck cancer". Lancet. 371 (9625): 1695–1709. ISSN 1474-547X. PMID 18486742. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(08)60728-X.
- ↑ Regalbuto, Concetto; Frasca, Francesco; Pellegriti, Gabriella; Malandrino, Pasqualino; Marturano, Ilenia; Di Carlo, Isidoro; Pezzino, Vincenzo (2012-10-01). "Update on thyroid cancer treatment". Future Oncology (London, England). 8 (10): 1331–1348. ISSN 1744-8301. PMID 23130931. doi:10.2217/fon.12.123.
- ↑ Esophageal Cancer Treatment (PDQ®): Health Professional Version. Bethesda (MD): National Cancer Institute (US). 2002-01-01. PMID 26389338.
- ↑ Gastric Cancer Treatment (PDQ®): Patient Version. Bethesda (MD): National Cancer Institute (US). 2002-01-01. PMID 26389328.
- ↑ Colon Cancer Treatment (PDQ®): Patient Version. Bethesda (MD): National Cancer Institute (US). 2002-01-01. PMID 26389319.
- ↑ Rectal Cancer Treatment (PDQ®): Health Professional Version. Bethesda (MD): National Cancer Institute (US). 2002-01-01. PMID 26389402.
- ↑ Adult Primary Liver Cancer Treatment (PDQ®): Patient Version. Bethesda (MD): National Cancer Institute (US). 2002-01-01. PMID 26389251.
- ↑ Pancreatic Cancer Treatment (PDQ®): Patient Version. Bethesda (MD): National Cancer Institute (US). 2002-01-01. PMID 26389396.
- ↑ Skin Cancer Treatment (PDQ®): Patient Version. Bethesda (MD): National Cancer Institute (US). 2002-01-01. PMID 26389265.
- ↑ Jonasch, Eric (2015-05-01). "Kidney cancer: current and novel treatment options". Journal of the National Comprehensive Cancer Network: JNCCN. 13 (5 Suppl): 679–681. ISSN 1540-1413. PMID 25995429.
- ↑ Bladder Cancer Treatment (PDQ®): Health Professional Version. Bethesda (MD): National Cancer Institute (US). 2002-01-01. PMID 26389399.
- ↑ Prostate Cancer Treatment (PDQ®): Patient Version. Bethesda (MD): National Cancer Institute (US). 2002-01-01. PMID 26389353.
- ↑ Testicular Cancer Treatment (PDQ®): Health Professional Version. Bethesda (MD): National Cancer Institute (US). 2002-01-01. PMID 26389220.
- ↑ "Osteosarcoma and MFH of Bone Treatment". National Cancer Institute. Retrieved 2016-01-17.
- ↑ Adult Hodgkin Lymphoma Treatment (PDQ®): Health Professional Version. Bethesda (MD): National Cancer Institute (US). 2002-01-01. PMID 26389473.
- ↑ "Adult Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma Treatment". National Cancer Institute. Retrieved 2016-01-17.
- ↑ "Adult Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia Treatment". National Cancer Institute. Retrieved 2016-01-17.
- ↑ "Adult Acute Myeloid Leukemia Treatment". National Cancer Institute. Retrieved 2016-01-17.
- ↑ "Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia Treatment". National Cancer Institute. Retrieved 2016-01-17.
- ↑ "Chronic Myelogenous Leukemia Treatment". National Cancer Institute. Retrieved 2016-01-17.
- ↑ Kennedy, B. J. (1997-12-01). "Medical oncology as a discipline". Oncology. 54 (6): 459–462. ISSN 0030-2414. PMID 9394841.
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External links
- "Comprehensive Cancer Information". National Cancer Institute. Retrieved 2016-01-16.<
- "NCCN - Evidence-Based Cancer Guidelines, Oncology Drug Compendium, Oncology Continuing Medical Education". National Comprehensive Cancer Network. Retrieved 2016-01-16.
- "European Society for Medical Oncology | ESMO". www.esmo.org. Retrieved 2016-01-16.