Oncology

Oncology

A coronal CT scan showing a malignant mesothelioma, indicated by the asterisk and the arrows
Focus Cancerous tumor
Subdivisions Medical oncology, radiation oncology, surgical oncology
Significant tests Tumor markers, TNM staging, CT scans, MRI

Oncology is a branch of medicine that deals with the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of cancer. A medical professional who practices oncology is an oncologist.[1] The name's etymological origin is the Greek word ὄγκος (ónkos), meaning "tumor", "volume" or "mass".[2]

The three components which have improved survival in cancer are:

  1. Prevention - This is by reduction of risk factors like tobacco and alcohol consumption[3]
  2. Early diagnosis - Screening of common cancers[4] and comprehensive diagnosis and staging
  3. Treatment - Multimodality management[5] by discussion in tumor board and treatment in a comprehensive cancer centre[6]

Cancers are often managed through discussion on multi-disciplinary cancer conferences[7] where medical oncologist, surgical oncologist, radiation oncologist, pathologist, radiologist and organ specific oncologists meet to find the best possible management for an individual patient considering the physical, social, psychological, emotional and financial status of the patients. It is very important for oncologists to keep updated of the latest advancements in oncology, as changes in management of cancer are quite common. All eligible patients in whom cancer progresses and for whom no standard of care treatment options are available should be enrolled in a clinical trial.

Risk factors

Tobacco
It is the leading cause of cancer and of death from cancer. Smoking is associated with increased risk of cancers of lung, larynx, mouth, oesophagus, throat, bladder, kidney, liver, stomach, pancreas, colon, rectum, cervix and acute myeloid leukemia. Smokeless tobacco (snuff or chewing tobacco) is associated with increased risks of cancers of the mouth, oesophagus, and pancreas.[8]
Alcohol
It can increase your risk of cancer of the mouth, throat, oesophagus, larynx, liver and breast. The risk of cancer is much higher for those who drink alcohol and also use tobacco.[9]
Obesity
Obese individuals have an increased risk of cancers of breast, colon, rectum, endometrium, oesophagus, kidney, pancreas, and gallbladder.[10]
Age
Advanced age is a risk factor for many cancers. The median age of cancer diagnosis is 66 years.[11]

Screening

Screening is recommended for cancers of breast,[12] cervix,[13] colon[14] and lung.[15]

Symptoms

Symptoms usually depend on the site and type of cancer.

Breast cancer
Lump in breast and axilla associated with or without ulceration or bloody nipple discharge.[16]
Endometrial cancer
Bleeding per vagina.[17]
Cervix cancer
Bleeding after sexual intercourse.[18]
Ovary cancer
Nonspecific symptoms like abdominal distension, dyspepsia.[19]
Lung cancer
Persistent cough, breathlessness, blood in the sputum, hoarseness of voice.[20]
Head and neck cancer
Non-healing ulcer or growth, lump in the neck.[21]
Brain cancer
Persistent headache, vomiting, loss of consciousness, double vision.[22]
Thyroid cancer
Lump in the neck.[23]
Oesophagus cancer
Painful swallowing predominantly to solid food, weight loss.[24]
Stomach cancer
Vomiting, dyspepsia, weight loss.[25]
Colon & rectal cancer
Bleeding per rectum, alteration of bowel habits.[26]
Liver cancer
Jaundice, pain and mass in right upper abdomen.[27]
Pancreatic cancer
Weight loss, jaundice.[28]
Skin cancer
Non-healing ulcer or growth, mole with sudden increase in size, irregular border, induration or pain.[29]
Kidney cancer
Blood in urine, abdominal lump.[30]
Bladder cancer
Blood in urine.[31]
Prostate cancer
Urgency, hesitancy and frequency while passing urine, bony pain.[32]
Testis cancer
Swelling of testis, back pain, dyspnoea.[33]
Bone cancer
Pain and swelling of bones.[34]
Lymphoma
Fever, weight loss more than 10% body weight in preceding 6 months and drenching night sweats which constitutes the B symptoms, lump in neck, axilla or groin.[35]
Blood cancer
Bleeding manifestations including bleeding gums, bleeding from nose, blood in vomitus, blood in sputum, blood stained urine, black coloured stools, fever, lump in neck, axilla or groin, lump in upper abdomen.[20]

Diagnosis and staging

Diagnostic and staging investigations depend on the site and type of malignancy

Blood cancer

Blood investigations including Haemoglobin, Total leucocyte count, Platelet count, Peripheral Smear, Red cell indices

Bone marrow studies including aspiration, Flow-cytometry,[36] Cytogenetics,[37] Fluorescent in situ hybridisation and molecular studies.[38]

Lymphoma

Excision biopsy of lymph node for Histopathological Examination (HPE),[39] Immuno-histochemistry (IHC)[40] and molecular studies.[41]

Blood investigations including Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), Serum Uric Acid, Renal Functions.[42]

Imaging tests like Computerised Tomography (CT), Positron emission tomography (PET CT).[43]

Bone marrow biopsy.[44]

Solid tumors

Biopsy for histopathology & IHC.[45]

Imaging tests like Roentgenogram (X-ray), Ultrasonography, Computerised tomography (CT), Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) and PET CT.[46]

Endoscopy including Naso-pharyngoscopy, Direct & Indirect Laryngoscopy, Upper Gastrointestinal Endoscopy, Colonoscopy, Cystoscopy.

tumor markers including alphafetoprotein (AFP),[47] Beta Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (HCG),[47] Carcinoembionic Antigen (CEA),[48] CA 125,[49] Prostate specific antigen (PSA).[50]

Treatment

Treatment depends on the site and type of cancer.

Solid tumors

Breast cancer
Treatment options include surgery, radiation, chemotherapy, hormonal therapy and targeted therapy (Her 2 neu inhibitors).[51]
Cervix cancer
Treatment options include radiation, surgery and chemotherapy.[52]
Endometrial cancer
Treatment options include surgery, radiation and chemotherapy.[53]
Ovary cancer
Treatment options include surgery, chemotherapy and targeted therapy (VEGF inhibitors).[54]
Lung cancer
Treatment options include surgery, radiation, chemotherapy and targeted therapy (EGFR & ALK inhibitors).[55]
Head & Neck Cancer
Treatment options include surgery, radiation, chemotherapy and targeted therapy (EGFR inhibitors).[56]
Brain cancer
Treatment options include surgery, radiation, chemotherapy and targeted therapy (VEGF inhibitors).[51]
Thyroid cancer
Treatment options include surgery and radioactive iodine.[57]
Oesophageal cancer
Treatment options include radiation, chemotherapy and surgery.[58]
Stomach cancer
Treatment options include chemotherapy, surgery, radiation and targeted therapy (Her 2 neu inhibitors).[59]
Colon cancer
Treatment options include surgery, chemotherapy and targeted therapy (EGFR & VEGF inhibitors).[60]
Rectum cancer
Treatment options include chemotherapy, radiation, surgery.[61]
Liver cancer
Treatment options include surgery, Trans-arterial chemotherapy (TACE), Radio-frequency abalation (RFA) and multi-kinase (Sorafenib).[62]
Pancreas cancer
Treatment options include surgery, radiation and chemotherapy.[63]
Skin cancer
Treatment options include surgery, radiation, targeted therapy (BRAF & MEK inhibitors), Immunotherapy (CTLA 4 & PD 1 inhibitors) and chemotherapy.[64]
Kidney cancer
Treatment options include surgery, multi-kinase inhibitors and targeted therapy (mTOR & VEGF inhibitors).[65]
Bladder cancer
Treatment options include surgery, radiation and chemotherapy.[66]
Prostate cancer
Treatment options include surgery, radiation, chemotherapy, anti-androgens and immunotherapy.[67]
Testis cancer
Treatment options include surgery, chemotherapy and radiation.[68]
Bone cancer
Treatment options include surgery, chemotherapy and radiation.[69]

Lymphoma

It includes Hodgkin lymphoma (HL) and non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL):

Hodgkin lymphoma (HL)
Chemotherapy with ABVD or BEACOPP regimen and Involved field radiation therapy (IFRT).[70]
Non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL)
Chemo-immunotherapy (R-CHOP) for B cell lymphomas and chemotherapy (CHOP) for T cell lymphomas.[71]

Blood cancer

Includes acute and chronic leukemias. Acute leukemias includes acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) and acute myeloid leukemia (AML). Chronic leukemias include chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) and chronic myeloid leukemia (CML).

Acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL)
Intensive chemotherapy phase for initial 6 months and maintenance chemotherapy for 2 years. Prophylactic cranial and stem cell transplantation for high-risk patients.[72]
Acute myeloid leukemia (AML)
Induction with chemotherapy (Daunorubicin + Cytarabine) followed by consolidation chemotherapy (High dose cytarabine). Stem cell transplantation for high-risk patients.[73]
Chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL): Chemo-immunotherapy (FCR or BR regimen) for symptomatic patients.[74]
Chronic myeloid leukemia (CML)
Targeted therapy with tyrosine kinase inhibitor (Imatinib) as first-line treatment.[75]

Specialties

Progress and future

See also

References

  1. ↑ Maureen McCutcheon. Where Have My Eyebrows Gone?. Cengage Learning, 2001. ISBN 0766839346. Page 5.
  2. ↑ Types of Oncologists, American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO).
  3. ↑ Stein, C. J.; Colditz, G. A. (2004-01-26). "Modifiable risk factors for cancer". British Journal of Cancer. 90 (2): 299–303. ISSN 0007-0920. PMC 2410150 Freely accessible. PMID 14735167. doi:10.1038/sj.bjc.6601509.
  4. ↑ Hristova, L.; Hakama, M. (1997-01-01). "Effect of screening for cancer in the Nordic countries on deaths, cost and quality of life up to the year 2017". Acta Oncologica. 36 Suppl 9: 1–60. ISSN 0284-186X. PMID 9143316.
  5. ↑ Forbes, J. F. (1982-08-01). "Multimodality treatment of cancer". The Australian and New Zealand Journal of Surgery. 52 (4): 341–346. ISSN 0004-8682. PMID 6956307. doi:10.1111/j.1445-2197.1982.tb06005.x.
  6. ↑ Bristow, Robert E.; Chang, Jenny; Ziogas, Argyrios; Campos, Belinda; Chavez, Leo R.; Anton-Culver, Hoda (2015-05-01). "Impact of National Cancer Institute Comprehensive Cancer Centers on ovarian cancer treatment and survival". Journal of the American College of Surgeons. 220 (5): 940–950. ISSN 1879-1190. PMID 25840536. doi:10.1016/j.jamcollsurg.2015.01.056.
  7. ↑ Croke, J.M.; El-Sayed, S. (2012-08-01). "Multidisciplinary management of cancer patients: chasing a shadow or real value? An overview of the literature". Current Oncology. 19 (4): e232–e238. ISSN 1198-0052. PMC 3410834 Freely accessible. PMID 22876151. doi:10.3747/co.19.944.
  8. ↑ "Tobacco". National Cancer Institute. Retrieved 2016-01-18.
  9. ↑ "Alcohol". National Cancer Institute. Retrieved 2016-01-18.
  10. ↑ "Obesity". National Cancer Institute. Retrieved 2016-01-18.
  11. ↑ "Age". National Cancer Institute. Retrieved 2016-01-18.
  12. ↑ Gøtzsche, Peter C.; Jørgensen, Karsten Juhl (2013-01-01). "Screening for breast cancer with mammography". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 6: CD001877. ISSN 1469-493X. PMID 23737396. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD001877.pub5.
  13. ↑ Behtash, Nadereh; Mehrdad, Nili (2006-12-01). "Cervical cancer: screening and prevention". Asian Pacific Journal of Cancer Prevention. 7 (4): 683–686. ISSN 1513-7368. PMID 17250453.
  14. ↑ Winawer, Sidney; Fletcher, Robert; Rex, Douglas; Bond, John; Burt, Randall; Ferrucci, Joseph; Ganiats, Theodore; Levin, Theodore; Woolf, Steven (2003-02-01). "Colorectal cancer screening and surveillance: clinical guidelines and rationale-Update based on new evidence". Gastroenterology. 124 (2): 544–560. ISSN 0016-5085. PMID 12557158. doi:10.1053/gast.2003.50044.
  15. ↑ Humphrey, Linda L.; Deffebach, Mark; Pappas, Miranda; Baumann, Christina; Artis, Kathryn; Mitchell, Jennifer Priest; Zakher, Bernadette; Fu, Rongwei; Slatore, Christopher G. (2013-09-17). "Screening for lung cancer with low-dose computed tomography: a systematic review to update the US Preventive services task force recommendation". Annals of Internal Medicine. 159 (6): 411–420. ISSN 1539-3704. PMID 23897166. doi:10.7326/0003-4819-159-6-201309170-00690.
  16. ↑ "Symptoms of Breast Cancer | Breastcancer.org". Breastcancer.org. Retrieved 2016-01-17.
  17. ↑ Information, National Center for Biotechnology; Pike, U. S. National Library of Medicine 8600 Rockville; MD, Bethesda; Usa, 20894. "Endometrial Cancer: Symptoms - National Library of Medicine". PubMed Health. Retrieved 2016-01-17.
  18. ↑ Information, National Center for Biotechnology; Pike, U. S. National Library of Medicine 8600 Rockville; MD, Bethesda; Usa, 20894. "Cervical Cancer: Symptoms - National Library of Medicine". PubMed Health. Retrieved 2016-01-17.
  19. ↑ Olson, S. H.; Mignone, L.; Nakraseive, C.; Caputo, T. A.; Barakat, R. R.; Harlap, S. (2001-08-01). "Symptoms of ovarian cancer". Obstetrics and Gynecology. 98 (2): 212–217. ISSN 0029-7844. PMID 11506835. doi:10.1016/s0029-7844(01)01457-0.
  20. 1 2 Information, National Center for Biotechnology; Pike, U. S. National Library of Medicine 8600 Rockville; MD, Bethesda; Usa, 20894. "Lung Cancer: Symptoms - National Library of Medicine". PubMed Health. Retrieved 2016-01-17.
  21. ↑ Mehanna, H.; Paleri, V.; West, C. M. L.; Nutting, C. (2010-01-01). "Head and neck cancer--Part 1: Epidemiology, presentation, and prevention". BMJ (Clinical research ed.). 341: c4684. ISSN 1756-1833. PMID 20855405. doi:10.1136/bmj.c4684.
  22. ↑ Snyder, H.; Robinson, K.; Shah, D.; Brennan, R.; Handrigan, M. (1993-06-01). "Signs and symptoms of patients with brain tumors presenting to the emergency department". The Journal of Emergency Medicine. 11 (3): 253–258. ISSN 0736-4679. PMID 8340578. doi:10.1016/0736-4679(93)90042-6.
  23. ↑ Information, National Center for Biotechnology; Pike, U. S. National Library of Medicine 8600 Rockville; MD, Bethesda; Usa, 20894. "Thyroid Cancer: Symptoms - National Library of Medicine". PubMed Health. Retrieved 2016-01-17.
  24. ↑ Information, National Center for Biotechnology; Pike, U. S. National Library of Medicine 8600 Rockville; MD, Bethesda; Usa, 20894. "Esophageal Cancer: Symptoms - National Library of Medicine". PubMed Health. Retrieved 2016-01-17.
  25. ↑ Information, National Center for Biotechnology; Pike, U. S. National Library of Medicine 8600 Rockville; MD, Bethesda; Usa, 20894. "Stomach Cancer (Gastric Cancer): Symptoms - National Library of Medicine". PubMed Health. Retrieved 2016-01-17.
  26. ↑ Information, National Center for Biotechnology; Pike, U. S. National Library of Medicine 8600 Rockville; MD, Bethesda; Usa, 20894. "Colon Cancer: Symptoms - National Library of Medicine". PubMed Health. Retrieved 2016-01-17.
  27. ↑ Information, National Center for Biotechnology; Pike, U. S. National Library of Medicine 8600 Rockville; MD, Bethesda; Usa, 20894. "Adult Primary Liver Cancer: Symptoms - National Library of Medicine". PubMed Health. Retrieved 2016-01-17.
  28. ↑ Holly, Elizabeth A.; Chaliha, Indranushi; Bracci, Paige M.; Gautam, Manjushree (2004-06-01). "Signs and symptoms of pancreatic cancer: a population-based case-control study in the San Francisco Bay area". Clinical Gastroenterology and Hepatology. 2 (6): 510–517. ISSN 1542-3565. PMID 15181621. doi:10.1016/s1542-3565(04)00171-5.
  29. ↑ Information, National Center for Biotechnology; Pike, U. S. National Library of Medicine 8600 Rockville; MD, Bethesda; Usa, 20894. "Nonmelanoma Skin Cancer: Symptoms - National Library of Medicine". PubMed Health. Retrieved 2016-01-17.
  30. ↑ Information, National Center for Biotechnology; Pike, U. S. National Library of Medicine 8600 Rockville; MD, Bethesda; Usa, 20894. "Renal Cell Cancer: Symptoms - National Library of Medicine". PubMed Health. Retrieved 2016-01-17.
  31. ↑ Shephard, Elizabeth A.; Stapley, Sally; Neal, Richard D.; Rose, Peter; Walter, Fiona M.; Hamilton, William T. (2012-09-01). "Clinical features of bladder cancer in primary care". The British Journal of General Practice: The Journal of the Royal College of General Practitioners. 62 (602): e598–604. ISSN 1478-5242. PMC 3426598 Freely accessible. PMID 22947580. doi:10.3399/bjgp12X654560.
  32. ↑ Information, National Center for Biotechnology; Pike, U. S. National Library of Medicine 8600 Rockville; MD, Bethesda; Usa, 20894. "Prostate Cancer: Symptoms - National Library of Medicine". PubMed Health. Retrieved 2016-01-17.
  33. ↑ Information, National Center for Biotechnology; Pike, U. S. National Library of Medicine 8600 Rockville; MD, Bethesda; Usa, 20894. "Testicular Cancer: Symptoms - National Library of Medicine". PubMed Health. Retrieved 2016-01-17.
  34. ↑ Clohisy, Denis R.; Mantyh, Patrick W. (2003-10-01). "Bone cancer pain". Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research (415 Suppl): S279–288. ISSN 0009-921X. PMID 14600620. doi:10.1097/01.blo.0000093059.96273.56.
  35. ↑ Vuckovic, J.; Zemunik, T.; Forenpoher, G.; Knezevic, N.; Stula, N.; Dubravcic, M.; Capkun, V. (1994-04-01). "Prognostic value of B-symptoms in low-grade non-hodgkin's lymphomas". Leukemia & Lymphoma. 13 (3-4): 357–358. ISSN 1042-8194. PMID 8049656. doi:10.3109/10428199409056302.
  36. ↑ Givan, Alice L. (2011-01-01). "Flow cytometry: an introduction". Methods in Molecular Biology (Clifton, N.J.). 699: 1–29. ISSN 1940-6029. PMID 21116976. doi:10.1007/978-1-61737-950-5_1.
  37. ↑ Mrózek, Krzysztof; Heerema, Nyla A.; Bloomfield, Clara D. (2004-06-01). "Cytogenetics in acute leukemia". Blood Reviews. 18 (2): 115–136. ISSN 0268-960X. PMID 15010150. doi:10.1016/S0268-960X(03)00040-7.
  38. ↑ Bacher, Ulrike; Schnittger, Susanne; Haferlach, Claudia; Haferlach, Torsten (2009-01-01). "Molecular diagnostics in acute leukemias". Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine. 47 (11): 1333–1341. ISSN 1437-4331. PMID 19817644. doi:10.1515/CCLM.2009.324.
  39. ↑ Eberle, Franziska C.; Mani, Haresh; Jaffe, Elaine S. (2009-04-01). "Histopathology of Hodgkin's lymphoma". Cancer Journal (Sudbury, Mass.). 15 (2): 129–137. ISSN 1528-9117. PMID 19390308. doi:10.1097/PPO.0b013e31819e31cf.
  40. ↑ Rao, I. Satish (2010-01-01). "Role of immunohistochemistry in lymphoma". Indian Journal of Medical and Paediatric Oncology. 31 (4): 145–147. ISSN 0971-5851. PMC 3089924 Freely accessible. PMID 21584221. doi:10.4103/0971-5851.76201.
  41. ↑ Arber, Daniel A. (2000-11-01). "Molecular Diagnostic Approach to Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma". The Journal of molecular diagnostics : JMD. 2 (4): 178–190. ISSN 1525-1578. PMC 1906917 Freely accessible. PMID 11232108. doi:10.1016/s1525-1578(10)60636-8.
  42. ↑ Hande, K. R.; Garrow, G. C. (1993-02-01). "Acute tumor lysis syndrome in patients with high-grade non-Hodgkin's lymphoma". The American Journal of Medicine. 94 (2): 133–139. ISSN 0002-9343. PMID 8430709. doi:10.1016/0002-9343(93)90174-n.
  43. ↑ D'souza, Maria M; Jaimini, Abhinav; Bansal, Abhishek; Tripathi, Madhavi; Sharma, Rajnish; Mondal, Anupam; Tripathi, Rajendra Prashad (2013-01-01). "FDG-PET/CT in lymphoma". The Indian Journal of Radiology & Imaging. 23 (4): 354–365. ISSN 0971-3026. PMC 3932580 Freely accessible. PMID 24604942. doi:10.4103/0971-3026.125626.
  44. ↑ Kumar, Suneet; Rau, Aarathi R.; Naik, Ramadas; Kini, Hema; Mathai, Alka M.; Pai, Muktha R.; Khadilkar, Urmila N. (2009-09-01). "Bone marrow biopsy in non-Hodgkin lymphoma: a morphological study". Indian Journal of Pathology & Microbiology. 52 (3): 332–338. ISSN 0974-5130. PMID 19679954. doi:10.4103/0377-4929.54987.
  45. ↑ Pillai, R.; Kannan, S.; Chandran, G. J. (1993-04-01). "The immunohistochemistry of solid tumours: potential problems for new laboratories". The National Medical Journal of India. 6 (2): 71–75. ISSN 0970-258X. PMID 8477213.
  46. ↑ Franzius, C. (2010-08-01). "FDG-PET/CT in pediatric solid tumors". The quarterly journal of nuclear medicine and molecular imaging: official publication of the Italian Association of Nuclear Medicine (AIMN) [and] the International Association of Radiopharmacology (IAR), [and] Section of the Society of Radiopharmaceutical Chemistry and Biology. 54 (4): 401–410. ISSN 1824-4785. PMID 20823808.
  47. 1 2 Bassetto, M. A.; Franceschi, T.; Lenotti, M.; Parise, G.; Pancheri, F.; Sabbioni, R.; Zaninelli, M.; Cetto, G. L. (1994-01-01). "AFP and HCG in germ cell tumors". The International Journal of Biological Markers. 9 (1): 29–32. ISSN 0393-6155. PMID 7519651.
  48. ↑ Barone, C.; Astone, A.; Cassano, A.; Garufi, C.; Astone, P.; Grieco, A.; Noviello, M. R.; Ricevuto, E.; Albanese, C. (1990-01-01). "Advanced colon cancer: staging and prognosis by CEA test". Oncology. 47 (2): 128–132. ISSN 0030-2414. PMID 2314825.
  49. ↑ Scholler, Nathalie; Urban, Nicole (2007-12-01). "CA125 in Ovarian Cancer". Biomarkers in medicine. 1 (4): 513–523. ISSN 1752-0363. PMC 2872496 Freely accessible. PMID 20477371. doi:10.2217/17520363.1.4.513.
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  51. 1 2 Breast Cancer Treatment (PDQ®): Patient Version. Bethesda (MD): National Cancer Institute (US). 2002-01-01. PMID 26389406.
  52. ↑ Cervical Cancer Treatment (PDQ®): Health Professional Version. Bethesda (MD): National Cancer Institute (US). 2002-01-01. PMID 26389493.
  53. ↑ Endometrial Cancer Treatment (PDQ®): Patient Version. Bethesda (MD): National Cancer Institute (US). 2002-01-01. PMID 26389334.
  54. ↑ Aletti, Giovanni D.; Gallenberg, Mary M.; Cliby, William A.; Jatoi, Aminah; Hartmann, Lynn C. (2007-06-01). "Current management strategies for ovarian cancer". Mayo Clinic Proceedings. 82 (6): 751–770. ISSN 0025-6196. PMID 17550756. doi:10.4065/82.6.751.
  55. ↑ Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer Treatment (PDQ®): Patient Version. Bethesda (MD): National Cancer Institute (US). 2002-01-01. PMID 26389355.
  56. ↑ Argiris, Athanassios; Karamouzis, Michalis V.; Raben, David; Ferris, Robert L. (2008-05-17). "Head and neck cancer". Lancet. 371 (9625): 1695–1709. ISSN 1474-547X. PMID 18486742. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(08)60728-X.
  57. ↑ Regalbuto, Concetto; Frasca, Francesco; Pellegriti, Gabriella; Malandrino, Pasqualino; Marturano, Ilenia; Di Carlo, Isidoro; Pezzino, Vincenzo (2012-10-01). "Update on thyroid cancer treatment". Future Oncology (London, England). 8 (10): 1331–1348. ISSN 1744-8301. PMID 23130931. doi:10.2217/fon.12.123.
  58. ↑ Esophageal Cancer Treatment (PDQ®): Health Professional Version. Bethesda (MD): National Cancer Institute (US). 2002-01-01. PMID 26389338.
  59. ↑ Gastric Cancer Treatment (PDQ®): Patient Version. Bethesda (MD): National Cancer Institute (US). 2002-01-01. PMID 26389328.
  60. ↑ Colon Cancer Treatment (PDQ®): Patient Version. Bethesda (MD): National Cancer Institute (US). 2002-01-01. PMID 26389319.
  61. ↑ Rectal Cancer Treatment (PDQ®): Health Professional Version. Bethesda (MD): National Cancer Institute (US). 2002-01-01. PMID 26389402.
  62. ↑ Adult Primary Liver Cancer Treatment (PDQ®): Patient Version. Bethesda (MD): National Cancer Institute (US). 2002-01-01. PMID 26389251.
  63. ↑ Pancreatic Cancer Treatment (PDQ®): Patient Version. Bethesda (MD): National Cancer Institute (US). 2002-01-01. PMID 26389396.
  64. ↑ Skin Cancer Treatment (PDQ®): Patient Version. Bethesda (MD): National Cancer Institute (US). 2002-01-01. PMID 26389265.
  65. ↑ Jonasch, Eric (2015-05-01). "Kidney cancer: current and novel treatment options". Journal of the National Comprehensive Cancer Network: JNCCN. 13 (5 Suppl): 679–681. ISSN 1540-1413. PMID 25995429.
  66. ↑ Bladder Cancer Treatment (PDQ®): Health Professional Version. Bethesda (MD): National Cancer Institute (US). 2002-01-01. PMID 26389399.
  67. ↑ Prostate Cancer Treatment (PDQ®): Patient Version. Bethesda (MD): National Cancer Institute (US). 2002-01-01. PMID 26389353.
  68. ↑ Testicular Cancer Treatment (PDQ®): Health Professional Version. Bethesda (MD): National Cancer Institute (US). 2002-01-01. PMID 26389220.
  69. ↑ "Osteosarcoma and MFH of Bone Treatment". National Cancer Institute. Retrieved 2016-01-17.
  70. ↑ Adult Hodgkin Lymphoma Treatment (PDQ®): Health Professional Version. Bethesda (MD): National Cancer Institute (US). 2002-01-01. PMID 26389473.
  71. ↑ "Adult Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma Treatment". National Cancer Institute. Retrieved 2016-01-17.
  72. ↑ "Adult Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia Treatment". National Cancer Institute. Retrieved 2016-01-17.
  73. ↑ "Adult Acute Myeloid Leukemia Treatment". National Cancer Institute. Retrieved 2016-01-17.
  74. ↑ "Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia Treatment". National Cancer Institute. Retrieved 2016-01-17.
  75. ↑ "Chronic Myelogenous Leukemia Treatment". National Cancer Institute. Retrieved 2016-01-17.
  76. ↑ Kennedy, B. J. (1997-12-01). "Medical oncology as a discipline". Oncology. 54 (6): 459–462. ISSN 0030-2414. PMID 9394841.
  77. 1 2 3 "Types of Oncologists". Cancer.Net : American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO). Retrieved 25 May 2013.
  78. ↑ Natarajan, Sundaram (2015-02-01). "Ocular oncology - A multidisciplinary specialty". Indian Journal of Ophthalmology. 63 (2): 91. ISSN 0301-4738. PMC 4399140 Freely accessible. PMID 25827536. doi:10.4103/0301-4738.154364.
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