North–South Railway (Vietnam)

North–South Railway
Train waiting at Phu My, north of Quy Nhơn
Overview
Type	Heavy rail
Locale	Vietnam
Termini	Hanoi Railway Station Saigon Railway Station
Operation
Opened	1936
Owner	Vietnam Railways
Technical
Line length	1,726 km (1,072 mi)
Track gauge	1,000 mm (3 ft 3 3⁄8 in)
Route map Legend km 0,000 Hanoi 5 Giáp Bát 9 Văn Điển to Ha Dong 18 Thuong Tin 26 Cho Tia 30 Do Xa 34 Phu Xuyen Hanoi Hà Nam border 45 Dong Van 56 Phủ Lý 67 Binh Luc Hà Nam Nam Định border 73 Cau Ho 81 Dang Xa 0,087 Nam Định 94 Trinh Xuyen 101 Nui Goi 108 Cat Dang Nam Định Ninh Bình border 115 Ninh Bình 121 Cau Yen 125 Ghenh 134 Dong Giao Ninh Bình Thanh Hóa border 142 Bỉm Sơn 153 Do Len 161 Nghia Trang Ma River 0,176 Thanh Hóa 188 Yen Thai 197 Minh Khoi 207 Thi Long 219 Van Trai 229 Khoa Truong 238 Truong Lam Thanh Hóa Nghệ An border 245 Hoang Mai Hoang Mai River 261 Cau Giat for Thai Hoa Lach Van River 272 Yen Ly 279 Cho Sy 292 My Ly Cua Lo River 309 Quan Hanh 0,319 Vinh 330 Yen Xuan Cả River 338 Yen Trung 345 Duc Lac 352 Yen Due 358 Hoa Duyet 370 Thanh Luyen 381 Chu Le 386 Huong Pho 397 Phuc Trach Hà Tĩnh Quảng Bình border 405 La Khe 409 Tân Ấp Tân Ấp–Xóm Cục Railway 415 Dong Chuoi 426 Kim Lu 437 Dong Le 450 Ngoc Lam 453 Minh Cam 459 Lac Son 468 Le Son 482 Minh Le Con River 489 Ngan Son 499 Tho Loc 511 Phuc Tu 0,522 Đồng Hới 529 Le Ky 539 Long Dai Long Đại River 551 My Duc 558 Phu Hoa 565 My Trach 572 Thuong Lam Quảng Bình Quảng Trị border 588 Sa Lung 592 Vinh Thuy 599 Tien An Bến Hải River 609 Ha Thanh 622 Đông Hà Thạch Hãn River 634 Quang Tri 643 Dien Sanh 652 My Chanh Quảng Trị Thừa Thiên-Huế border 660 Pho Trach 670 Hien Sy 678 Văn Xá 684 An Hoa Perfume River 0,688 Huế 691 An Cuu 699 Huong Thuy 702 Phu Bai 708 Nong 715 Truoi 724 Da Bac 729 Cau Hai 732 Nuoc Ngot 742 Thua Luu 755 Lang Co Thừa Thiên-Huế Da Nang border Hải Vân Pass 761 Hai Van Bac 766 Hai Van 772 Hai Van Nam 776 Lien Chieu 777 Kim Lien Cu Đê River 788 Thanh Khê 0,791 Đà Nẵng 794 Lien Tri 799 Phong Le Cam Le River 804 Le Trach Da Nang Quảng Nam border 814 Nong Son Thu Bồn River 819 Go Noi 820 Chiem Son 825 Tra Kieu 842 Phu Cang 857 An My 865 Tam Kỳ 928 Quảng Ngãi 1,096 Diêu Trì 0,000 Quy Nhơn 1,198 Tuy Hòa Đà Rằng River 1,315 Nha Trang 1,408 Tháp Chàm to Da Lat 1,455 Vinh Hao 1,551 Mương Mán Phan Thiết 1,697 Biên Hòa Đồng Nai river 1,707 Dĩ An 1,711 Sóng Thần 1,713 Thủ Đức 1,718 Bình Triệu 1,722 Gò Vấp Saigon River 1,726 Saigon

The North–South Railway (Vietnamese: Đường sắt Bắc–Nam, French: Chemin de fer Nord-Sud) is the principal railway line serving the country of Vietnam. It is a single-track metre gauge line connecting the capital Hanoi in the north to Ho Chi Minh City in the south, for a total length of 1,726 km (1,072 mi). Trains travelling this line are sometimes referred to as the Reunification Express (referring to the Reunification of Vietnam), although no particular train carries this name officially.^[1] The line was established during French colonial rule, and was completed over a period of nearly forty years, from 1899 to 1936.^[2] As of 2005, there were 278 stations on the Vietnamese railway network,^[3] of which 191 were located along the North–South line.^[4]

From World War II through to the Vietnam War, the entire North–South Railway sustained major damage from bombings and sabotage.^[5] Owing to this damage, and to a subsequent lack of capital investment and maintenance, much of the infrastructure along the North–South Railway remains outdated or in poor condition; in turn, lack of infrastructure development has been found to be a root cause for railway accidents along the line, including collisions at level crossings and derailments. Recent rehabilitation projects, supported by official development assistance, have improved the safety and efficiency of the line. As of 2007, 85% of the network's passenger volume and 60% of its cargo volume was transported along the line.^[6] The national railway company Vietnam Railways owns and operates the line.

Overview

For the most part, this 1,726 km (1,072 mi) long metre gauge line follows the coastline of Vietnam, beginning in Ha Noi, passing through the provinces of Hà Nam, Nam Đinh, Ninh Bình, Thanh Hóa, Nghệ An (Vinh), Hà Tĩnh, Quảng Bình (Đồng Hới), Quảng Trị (Đông Hà), Thừa Thiên–Huế (Huế), Da Nang, Quảng Nam, Quảng Ngãi, Bình Định, Phú Yên, Khánh Hòa (Nha Trang), Ninh Thuận, Bình Thuận (Phan Thiết), Đồng Nai and Binh Dương, before coming to an end in Ho Chi Minh City.^[6][7] Trains taking this route pass through a number of areas recognized for their beauty, such as the Hải Vân Pass and Lăng Cô Peninsula near Huế, and Vân Phong Bay near Nha Trang. Typical journeys from one end of the line to the other last about 30 hours.^[8] Passengers arriving in Hanoi are able to transfer to several other railway lines, leading to Haiphong, Hạ Long Bay, Thái Nguyên, Lào Cai, Lạng Sơn and the People's Republic of China.

As of 2007, 85% of the network's passenger traffic and 60% of its cargo traffic was transported along the North–South line, corresponding to 3,960.6 million person-km and 2,329.5 million ton-km, respectively.^{[nb 1]} These proportions are only slightly different from those recorded in the early 1990s; 1993 figures reported 82% of passenger traffic and 66% of cargo traffic along the line.^[6]

Passenger service

Daily passenger service is provided along the entire North–South Railway by state railway company Vietnam Railways. Express service links Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City, making stops at major stations; local service is also provided along shorter portions of the line, such as from Hanoi to Vinh, Vinh to Đồng Hới, Vinh to Quy Nhon, and so on. The following trains run regularly along the line (each line represents a pair of trains, one southbound and the other northbound):^[9]

Train	Type	From	To	Length	Notes
SE1/SE2	Express	Hanoi	Ho Chi Minh City	34 hrs, 40 mins	Stops at Nam Định, Thanh Hóa, Vinh, Đồng Hới, Dong Ha, Huế, Lang Co, Da Nang, Tam Ky, Quảng Ngãi, Dieu Tri, Tuy Hòa, Nha Trang, Thap Cham, Muong Man
SE3/SE4	Express	Hanoi	Ho Chi Minh City	29 hrs, 30 mins	Stops at Vinh, Đồng Hới, Huế, Da Nang, Dieu Tri, Nha Trang
SE5/SE6	Express	Hanoi	Ho Chi Minh City	32 hrs	Stops at Phủ Lý, Nam Định, Ninh Bình, Thanh Hóa, Vinh, Đồng Hới, Huế, Da Nang, Quảng Ngãi, Dieu Tri, Nha Trang, Thap Cham, Muong Man, Bien Hoa
TN1/TN2	Local	Hanoi	Ho Chi Minh City	40 hrs, 50 mins
TN3/TN4	Local	Hanoi	Ho Chi Minh City	40 hrs, 45 mins
TN5/TN6	Local	Hanoi	Ho Chi Minh City	40 hrs, 10 mins
TN7/TN8	Local	Hanoi	Ho Chi Minh City	40 hrs, 25 mins
NA1/NA2	Local	Hanoi	Vinh
NA3/NA4	Local	Hanoi	Vinh
TH1/TH2	Local	Giap Bat	Thanh Hóa
VD31/VD32	Local	Vinh	Đồng Hới
DH41/DH42	Local	Đồng Hới	Huế
VQ1/VQ2	Local	Vinh	Quy Nhon

Freight service

Vietnam Railways provides daily freight transport, mainly between Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City; freight service ending at Da Nang is also offered. The following trains run regularly along the line (each line represents a pair of trains, one southbound and the other northbound):^[10]

Train	From	To	Notes
GS1/GS2	Giáp Bát (Hanoi)	Sóng Thần (HCMC)	4-day itinerary
SBN1/SBN2	Giáp Bát (Hanoi)	Sóng Thần (HCMC)	4-day itinerary
HBN1/HBN2	Giáp Bát (Hanoi)	Sóng Thần (HCMC)
HBN3/HBN4	Giáp Bát (Hanoi)	Sóng Thần (HCMC)
SY1/SY2	Yen Vien (Hanoi)	Sóng Thần (HCMC)
SY1/SY2	Yen Vien (Hanoi)	Sóng Thần (HCMC)
HSD1/HSD2	Da Nang	Ho Chi Minh City
HSK1/HSK2	Kim Lien (Da Nang)	Sóng Thần (HCMC)

History

In 1895, outgoing Governor-General of French Indochina Jean Marie de Lanessan, convinced of the necessity of building railways to connect the different parts of Indochina, urged his successors to give priority to the construction of a north–south railway connecting Hanoi and Saigon, calling it "the backbone of Indochina" from which all other routes would radiate.^{[nb 2]} It was Paul Doumer, who was appointed as Governor-General in 1897, who put de Lanessan's call into action. Soon after his appointment, Doumer submitted an overarching proposal for railway development in Indochina, including plans for what would eventually become the Yunnan–Vietnam Railway and the North–South Railway. The French government approved the construction of the entire Yunnan line and several sections of the North–South line, approving a loan of 200 million francs within the following year. Work began swiftly thereafter, with the Phu Lang Thuong—Lạng Sơn line being upgraded and extended from Hanoi to the Chinese border at Dong Dang by 1902, and the first section of the Yunnan line between Hanoi and Haiphong opening in the same year.^[11][12][13]

Construction of the first sections of the North–South Railway itself began in 1899, and lasted over thirty years, with individual sections completed serially. The first section to be laid down was the Hanoi–Vinh section, built from 1899 to 1905. Next to be built was the Nha Trang–Saigon section from 1905 to 1913; the Saigon–Tan Linh portion was opened in 1908, followed by the Tan Linh–Nha Trang portion in 1913. During this time, tracks were also laid around the city of Huế, leading south to Tourane, and north to Đông Hà. The Huế–Tourane section opened in 1906, and the Huế–Dong Ha line opened in 1908. The Vinh-Huế section was constructed from 1913 to 1927, and finally, the remaining Huế–Nha Trang section was constructed from 1930 to 1936.^[2][6][11] On 2 October 1936, the entire 1,726 km (1,072 mi) Hanoi–Saigon link was formally put into full operation.

As elsewhere in the world, the railways were the sites of active union and labor organization.^[14]

The first journeys from end to end of the newly completed line, dubbed the Transindochinois ("Trans-Indochinese"), generally took about 60 hours, or two days and three nights.^[15] This decreased to about 40 hours by the late 1930s, with trains travelling at an average speed of 43 km/h (27 mph).^[5] Trains were generally pulled by French Pacific or Mikado locomotives, and included dining cars and sleeping cars (voitures-couchettes).^[12]

Wartime

After the Japanese invasion of French Indochina during World War II, Japanese forces used the Vietnamese railway system extensively, inviting sabotage by the Viet Minh as well as American bombing from the air. Following the exit of the Japanese at the end of the war, efforts were made to repair the seriously damaged North–South line.

Shortly after World War II ended, however, the First Indochina War began, and the Viet Minh's sabotage of the rail system continued, this time against the armies of the French Union.^[5] In response, the French began using the armed armoured train La Rafale as both a cargo-carrier and a mobile surveillance unit.^[16][17] In February 1951 the first Rafale was in service on the Saigon-Nha Trang section of the North–South line.^[18][19] Use of the Rafale failed to deter the Viet Minh guerrillas, however, who continued sabotaging the line, making off with its rails under cover of night and creating a 300 km rail network between Ninh Hoa and Da Nang, in a Viet Minh-controlled area.^[5] In 1953, the guerrillas attacked La Rafale itself, mining and destroying stone bridges as they passed by.^[20] In 1954, following the signature of Geneva Accords, Vietnam was temporarily divided into two parts: the communist North and anti-communist South. The North–South Railway was bisected accordingly at Hiền Lương Bridge, a bridge over the Bến Hải River in Quảng Trị Province.^[2]

Throughout the Vietnam War, the North–South Railway was a target of bombardments and sabotage by both North Vietnamese and South Vietnamese forces. The South, supported with the United States, reconstructed the track between Saigon and Huế in the late 1950s, a distance of 1,041 km (647 mi). Nevertheless, a relentless campaign of intense bombing and sabotage by the Viet Cong and North Vietnamese regular units resulted in the South Vietnamese railway system being unable to carry significant tonnages. 795 attacks were launched between 1961 and 1964 alone, eventually forcing the South to abandon many large sections of the track.^[5] The U.S. Army operating in South Vietnam had considerable interest in the North–South line because of the potential it offered in the bulk movement of cargo at low rates. The system was used to support the Military Assistance Command, Vietnam, construction program and transported hundreds of thousands of tons of rock and gravel to air base and highway sites.^[21]

In North Vietnam, American bombing of railways was concentrated on key targets such as railway bridges, both along the North–South Railway and along the lines north of Hanoi, such as the Hanoi–Lào Cai and Hanoi–Dong Dang lines. Operation Rolling Thunder was the first large-scale bombing campaign carried out by the U.S. Air Force, taking place from March 2, 1965 until November 1, 1968, when US President Lyndon B. Johnson temporarily called off air raids. Large-scale air raids resumed from May 9 to October 23, 1972, for Operation Linebacker, and again from December 18–29, 1972, for Operation Linebacker II, with fewer target restrictions than Rolling Thunder.

A particularly difficult target for the U.S. Air Force was the Thanh Hóa Bridge, a well-defended combined road/rail bridge in Thanh Hóa Province. One of the first attacks on the bridge took place on April 3–4, 1965. Despite dropping 239 tons of bombs on the bridge during the raid, the bridge remained serviceable; additionally, three American F-105 aircraft were shot down during the raid.^[22][23] The U.S. Navy also conducted Alpha strikes on the bridge. Several times, traffic over the bridge was interrupted, but every time, the North Vietnamese dutifully repaired the damage. The bridge was eventually destroyed by laser-guided smart bombs during separate raids on April 27 and May 13, 1972, as part of Operation Linebacker.

After the Fall of Saigon on 30 April 1975, the Communist government of the newly unified Vietnam took control of the former South Vietnamese railway. Heavily damaged, the war-torn North–South Railway line was nevertheless restored and returned to service on 31 December 1976, promoted as a symbol of Vietnamese unity. In the short time between the surrender of the South and the reopening of the line, 1334 bridges, 27 tunnels, 158 stations and 1370 switches had been repaired.^[5] Other railway lines that once existed, such as the Da Lat–Thap Cham Railway, were dismantled during this period to provide materials for the repair of the main line.^[24]

Accidents and incidents

On 10 March 2015 D19E locomotive №968 was written off in an accident near Dien Sanh when it was hauling a passenger train that was in collision with a lorry on a level crossing.

Stations

List of stations

This abridged list includes all major stations^{[nb 3]} with timetabled services. As of 2005, there were 278 stations on the Vietnamese railway network,^[3] of which 191 were located along the North–South line.^[4]

Km	Station	Region	Province	City/Dist./Ward	Opened	Notes	Photo
0	Hanoi	Red River Delta	Hanoi	Hoan Kiem District, Hanoi	1902[25]	Interchange for Hanoi–Haiphong, Hanoi–Thái Nguyên, Hanoi–Lào Cai, Hanoi–Đồng Đăng lines
5	Giáp Bát	Red River Delta	Hanoi	Hoang Mai District, Hanoi		Freight station	Photo
56	Phủ Lý	Red River Delta	Hà Nam	Hai Ba Trung Ward, Phủ Lý
87	Nam Định	Red River Delta	Nam Định	Nam Định			Photo
115	Ninh Bình	Red River Delta	Ninh Bình	Thanh Binh Ward, Ninh Bình
176	Thanh Hóa	North Central Coast	Thanh Hóa	Tan Son Ward, Thanh Hóa
319	Vinh	North Central Coast	Nghệ An	Lê Lợi Ward, Vinh	1905[26]
522	Đồng Hới	North Central Coast	Quảng Bình	Nam Ly Ward, Đồng Hới
622	Đông Hà	North Central Coast	Quảng Trị	Đông Hà
688	Huế	North Central Coast	Thua Thiên-Huế	Huế	1906[27]
777	Kim Lien	South Central Coast	Da Nang			Freight station	Photo
791	Đà Nẵng	South Central Coast	Da Nang	Thanh Khe District	1902[28]
865	Tam Kỳ	South Central Coast	Quảng Nam	An Xuan Ward, Tam Ky
928	Quảng Ngãi	South Central Coast	Quảng Ngãi	Quang Phu Ward, Quảng Ngãi
1096	Diêu Trì	South Central Coast	Bình Định	Diêu Trì, Tuy Phước District		For Quy Nhơn
1096*	Quy Nhơn	South Central Coast	Bình Định	Quy Nhơn
1198	Tuy Hòa	South Central Coast	Phú Yên	Ward 2, Tuy Hòa
1315	Nha Trang	South Central Coast	Khánh Hòa	Phuoc Tan Ward - Nha Trang
1408	Tháp Chàm	Southeast	Ninh Thuận	My Huong Ward, Phan Rang – Tháp Chàm		Interchange for Da Lat–Thap Cham line[nb 4]
1551	Bình Thuận	Southeast	Bình Thuận	Muong Man		For Phan Thiết
1697	Biên Hòa	Southeast	Đồng Nai	Trung Dung Ward, Biên Hòa			Photo
1711	Sóng Thần	Southeast	Ho Chi Minh City	An Binh, Di An District		Freight station	Photo
1726	Sai Gon	Southeast	Ho Chi Minh City	Ward 9, District 3	1983[nb 5]

Infrastructure

Most of Vietnam's railway infrastructure—including bridges, rail trucks, track beds, rolling stock, signals and communication equipment, and maintenance facilities—has suffered severe deterioration, mainly due to damage inflicted during the Vietnam War and a subsequent lack of capital investment and maintenance. More recently, rehabilitation projects sustained by official development assistance have allowed some of the most critical pieces of infrastructure along the line to be replaced, although much work still remains to be done.^[6] Complicating rehabilitation work is seasonal flooding, which, depending on its severity, may cause significant infrastructure damage. For instance, heavy rains falling on Vietnam's north central coast in October 2010 swept away several sections of track in Hà Tĩnh and Quảng Bình provinces; the flooding of many of the nearby provincial roads, which remained several metres underwater, prevented repair crews from reaching the affected sections for weeks.^[29][30][31]

Tracks

The North–South Railway line uses metre gauge, as was commonly used on local railways in France around the time of its construction.^[7][32]

Bridges

Vietnam Railways reports the number of railway bridges along the North–South line to be 1,300, totalling about 28,000 m (92,000 ft), or about 63% of the national total. Considering both standard rail bridges and combined bridges, the total length along the North–South line is about 36,000 m (118,000 ft).^[6][7] Many railway bridges are severely worn from age and have damage dating from the Vietnam War, despite temporary restoration following the war. As of 2007, 278 bridges requiring major rehabilitation remain along the North–South Railway line.^[6]

Tunnels

There are 27 railway tunnels along the North–South line, amounting to a total length of 8,335 m (27,346 ft).^[7] Certain tunnels are inadequately drained and suffer from deterioration in the tunnel lining, causing water leaks that necessitate reductions in speed.^[2]

Signalling

The North–South Railway line uses a semi-automatic block system, which allows individual signals to work either as automatic signals or manual signals.^[7] According to a joint Japanese-Vietnamese evaluation team, the recent installation of additional auto-signal systems at key crossings along the line has contributed to a decline in railway accidents.^[6]

Communications

Since 1998, microband Asynchronous Transfer Mode technology has been used along the North–South Railway line to send television signals; 64 kbit/s transmission lines are leased from the Vietnam Post and Telecommunications Corporation (VPTC). Along some sections of the line—for example, from Hanoi to Vinh and from Nha Trang to Ho Chi Minh City—a fiber optic cable network has been deployed; Vietnam Railways intends to extend the network along the remaining distance from Vinh to Nha Trang. A switching system featuring digital exchanges is in place, connected via the existing transmission system and the public telephone network. As the modernization of the telecommunication system progresses, manual exchanges are gradually being replaced with digital exchanges.^[3][7]

Safety

Along the North–South Railway line, 3,650 level crossings were counted, 3,000 (or 82%) of which had no barriers, alarm systems or guards.^[33] As a result, accidents involving vehicles and pedestrians have occurred. A researcher from Villanova University noted "There are numerous safety issues with level crossings...usually, an accident occurs every day."^[34] Many rail bridges and tunnels have suffered deterioration since the 1970s, requiring trains passing over or through them to reduce speeds as low as 15 kilometres per hour (9.3 mph).^[2] In addition, the center of the country is subject to violent annual flooding and bridges are often swept away, causing lengthy closures.^[6]

Along with recent efforts aimed at infrastructure rehabilitation, the recent adoption of safety measures by Vietnam Railways has led to a decline in railway accidents. These measures include: public awareness campaigns on railway safety in the media; construction of fences and safety barriers at critical level crossings in major cities; mobilization of volunteers for traffic control at train stations and level crossings, especially during holiday seasons; the installation of additional auto-signal systems; and the construction of flyovers and underpasses to redirect traffic.^[6]

Infrastructure rehabilitation

The condition of railway infrastructure in Vietnam, although improving, is still poor enough overall to require rehabilitation. Rail transport only became a national priority for the Vietnamese government around the mid-1990s, at which point most of the railway network was severely degraded, having received only temporary repair from damages suffered during decades of war.^[6][35]

From 1994 to 2005, a major bridge rehabilitation project took place on the North–South Railway line, with the Pacific Consultants International Group and Japan Transportation Consultants providing consultancy services. The overall project cost was JPY 11,020 million, or 18% less than the budgeted cost. The overall results of the project included a reduction in running hours from one end of the line to the other (from 36 hours in 1994 to 29 hours in 2007); an increase of speed limits on rehabilitated bridges (from 15 to 30 km/h (9.3 to 18.6 mph) to 60 to 80 km/h (37 to 50 mph), which contributed to the reduction in running hours; and a reduction in the number of railway accidents throughout the line.^[6]

In 2007, Vietnam Railways awarded an additional VND 150 billion (USD 9.5 million) five-year contract for consultancy services to Japan Transportation Consultants, the Pacific Consultants International Group, and the Japan Railway Technical Service (Jarts), regarding a VND 2.47 trillion project to further improve bridge and railway safety on the North–South line. The project's goals include the refurbishment of 44 bridges and 37.6 km (23.4 mi) of railway tracks, the building of two new railway bridges and a new railway station at Ninh Bình, and the purchase of 23 track machines. The project was expected to be completed in 2010.^[36]

Development

North–South Express Railway

National railway company Vietnam Railways has proposed a high-speed rail link between Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City, capable of running at 300 to 350 km/h (186 to 217 mph). Funding of the $56 billion line would mainly come from the Vietnamese government; reports suggest Japanese development aid could be made available in stages, conditioned on the adoption of Shinkansen technology.^[37][38] Once completed, the high-speed rail line would allow trains to complete the Hanoi-Ho Chi Minh City journey in approximately 6 hours.^[39] Vietnam's National Assembly rejected the existing plan for the line in June 2010, and asked for further study of the project.^[40]

Gallery

• 
  Travelling from Hội An to Hanoi.
• 
  Travelling northward from Ho Chi Minh City to Da Nang.
• 
  A passenger observes the scenery from her seat.
• 
  Railway tracks in Hanoi.

See also

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Rail transport in Vietnam.

• List of railway lines in Vietnam
• North–South Express Railway (Vietnam)
• Vietnam Railways

Notes and references

Notes

References

Bibliography

 This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the United States Army Center of Military History.

• Hulot, Frédéric. Les chemins de fer de la France d'outre-mer, tome 1 l'Indochine, le Yunnan. La Régordane. 1990.
• Heiser, Joseph M., Jr. (1991). Logistic Support. Washington, D. C.: United States Army Center of Military History. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)

External links

• Official Website of Vietnam Railways
• Ministry of Transport, Vietnam