Non-compete clause

In contract law, a non-compete clause (often NCC), or covenant not to compete (CNC), is a clause under which one party (usually an employee) agrees not to enter into or start a similar profession or trade in competition against another party (usually the employer). Some courts refer to these as "restrictive covenants." As a contract provision, a CNC is bound by traditional contract requirements including the consideration doctrine.

The use of such clauses is premised on the possibility that upon their termination or resignation, an employee might begin working for a competitor or starting a business, and gain competitive advantage by exploiting confidential information about their former employer's operations or trade secrets, or sensitive information such as customer/client lists, business practices, upcoming products, and marketing plans.

However, an over-broad CNC may prevent an employee from working elsewhere at all. English common law originally held any such constraint to be unenforceable under the public policy doctrine.[1] Contemporary case law permits exceptions, but generally will only enforce CNCs to the extent necessary to protect the employer. Most jurisdictions in which such contracts have been examined by the courts have deemed CNCs to be legally binding so long as the clause contains reasonable limitations as to the geographical area and time period in which an employee of a company may not compete.[2]

The extent to which non-compete clauses are legally allowed varies per jurisdiction. For example, the state of California in the United States invalidates non-compete-clauses for all but equity stakeholders in the sale of business interests.[3]

History

As far back as Dyer's Case in 1414, English common law had already been "old and settled" that restraints on trade were unenforceable.[1] That ban remained unchanged until 1621, when a restriction that was limited to a specific geographic location was found to be an enforceable exception to the previously absolute rule.[4] Almost a hundred years later, the exception became the rule with the 1711 watershed case of Mitchel v Reynolds[5] which established the modern framework for the analysis of the enforceability of non-compete agreements.[6]

United States

The majority of U.S. states recognize and enforce various forms of non-compete agreements. A few states, such as California, Montana, North Dakota, and Oklahoma, totally ban non-compete agreements for employees, or prohibit all non-compete agreements except in limited circumstances.[7] For this reason, non-compete agreements have been popular among companies with employees working in states where they are allowed.[8] They are very common among commercial radio stations and television stations, especially for radio personalities and television personalities working for media conglomerates. For example, if a radio or television personality quits, is laid off or fired from one station in the media market they work in, they cannot work for another competing station in the same market until their contract expires with their former employing station.[9]

California

Non-compete agreements are automatically void as a matter of law in California, except for a small set of specific situations expressly authorized by statute.[10] They were outlawed by the original California Civil Code in 1872 (Civ. Code, former § 1673).[11]

Out of state agreements are not enforceable

A leading court decision discussing the conflict between California law and the laws of other states is the 1998 decision Application Group, Inc. v. Hunter Group, Inc. [12] In Hunter, a Maryland company required that its Maryland–based employee agree to a one-year non-compete agreement. The contract stated that it was governed by and to be construed according to Maryland law. A Maryland employee then left to work for a competitor in California. When the new California employer sued in California state court to invalidate the covenant not to compete, the California court agreed and ruled that the non-compete provision was invalid and not enforceable in California. Business and Professions Code Section 16600 reflects a "strong public policy of the State of California" and the state has a strong interest in applying its law and protecting its businesses so that they can hire the employees of their choosing. California law is thus applicable to non-California employees seeking employment in California.

Whether California courts are required by the Full Faith and Credit Clause of the United States Constitution to enforce equitable judgments from courts of other states, having personal jurisdiction over the defendant, that enjoin competition or are contrary to important public interests in California is an issue that has not yet been decided.[13]

Exceptions - valid non-compete agreements in California

There are limited situations where a reasonable non-compete agreement may be valid in California.

  1. Where the owner of a business is selling the entire business, or is selling the goodwill in the business, the seller may be bound by a non-compete clause.[14]
  2. When there is a dissolution or disassociation of a partnership.[15]
  3. Where there is a dissolution of a limited liability company.[16]

Florida

The enforceability of non-compete agreements in the state of Florida is quite common. Some law firms build their law practice around these agreements and represent employees, employers and potential new employers of an employee currently bound by a non-compete agreement. The agreement is not allowed to be overly broad and generally difficult to enforce if it is for more than two years.[17] However, Florida courts will rarely refuse to enforce a non-compete agreement due to its length or geographic scope. Instead, under Florida law, courts are required to "blue pencil" an impermissibly broad or lengthy non-compete agreement to make it reasonable within the limits of Fla. Stat. § 542.335.[18] Also if the agreement is part of a general employment contract then there is the possibility of a prior breach by an employer. This may cause the non-compete clause of the contract to become unenforceable. However, recent case law from Florida's appellate courts has eroded the utility of the prior breach defense.[19]

Hawaii

A new law bars high-tech companies in Hawaii from requiring their employees to enter into “non-compete” and “non-solicit” agreements as a condition of employment. The new law, Act 158, went into effect on July 1, 2015.[20]

Illinois

Noncompete agreements will be enforced in Illinois if the agreement is ancillary to a valid relationship (employment, sale of a business, etc.) and 1) must be no greater in scope than is required to protect a legitimate business interest of the employer, 2) must not impose an undue hardship on the employee, and 3) cannot be injurious to the public.[21] While reasonable geographic and temporal limitations on the noncompete agreement are not expressly required by governing law, they tend to be examined as a measure of whether the scope of the noncompete is greater than is required to protect a legitimate business interest of the employer.[22]

Unlike other jurisdictions, which follow the general rule that consideration is only important as to whether it exists and not as to whether it is adequate, Illinois will inquire into the adequacy of consideration.[23] The majority of courts will require at least two years of continued at-will employment to support a noncompete agreement (or any other type of restrictive covenant). However, in certain cases involving particularly sharp conduct by an employee, courts have required less.

While Illinois courts state the rule above, logically the analytical steps should be in reverse order—because inadequate consideration is fatal to the claim. Thus, under McInnis v OAG [24] there are three requirements in order for a post employment restrictive covenant limiting a former employee’s right to work for a competitor to be enforceable under Illinois law: (1) it must be ancillary to a valid contract; (2) it must be supported by adequate consideration; (3) it must be reasonable, considering whether it: (a) is no greater than is required for the protection of a legitimate business interest of the employer, (b) does not impose undue hardship on the employee, and c) is not injurious to the public. The McInnis decision interpreted the Fifield decision, above, to mandate two years' employment in order for consideration to be adequate.

Massachusetts

Noncompete agreements will be enforced in Massachusetts in appropriate circumstances.[25]

Historical context

By 1837, Massachusetts had indisputably adopted the analysis established in Mitchel.[4] In 1922, the Supreme Judicial Court eliminated any doubt that restrictive covenants in the employment context would be enforced when reasonable.[26]

Current law

The basic proposition enunciated long ago continues to apply: “A covenant not to compete is enforceable only if it is necessary to protect a legitimate business interest, reasonably limited in time and space, and consonant with the public interest.” [27]

Reasonableness

Reasonableness is the touchstone of the analysis and is highly fact-dependent.[28] The context in which the CNC arises (such as employment relationship, contractual relationship) is a critical factor in the analysis.[29] A CNC that is unreasonable because it is too broad, will be scaled back if it is in fact capable of being narrowed.[30]

Even when a CNC is limited in duration, geographic reach, and scope, it will be enforced “only to the extent . . . necessary to protect the legitimate business interests of the employer.” [31] Recognized legitimate business interests are generally identified as the protection of trade secrets, confidential information, and goodwill.[32]

Consideration

An otherwise valid CNC must still, like other contracts, be supported by consideration. Accordingly, the Supreme Judicial Court has held that a CNC must be “ancillary . . . to an existing employment or contract of employment” or some other “permissible transaction . . . .” [33] However, consideration can exist regardless of whether the CNC is entered into at the beginning of the employment relationship, during the term of employment, or even at the end of an employment relationship.[34]

Texas

Under Texas law "a covenant not to compete is enforceable if it is ancillary to or part of an otherwise enforceable agreement at the time the agreement is made to the extent that it contains limitations as to time, geographical area, and scope of activity to be restrained that are reasonable and do not impose a greater restraint than is necessary to protect the goodwill or other business interest of the promisee."[35] Specific rules apply to physicians, notably that a physician cannot be prohibited "from providing continuing care and treatment to a specific patient or patients during the course of an acute illness even after the contract or employment has been terminated."[36]

However, Texas courts will not enforce a covenant not to compete if the court determines that such a covenant "is against public policy and therefore substantively unconscionable."[37]

Utah

CNC's are enforceable, but any CNC entered into after May 10, 2016 may not extend for a period of more than one year.[38] [39]

Virginia

In Virginia, the enforceability of covenants not to compete is governed by common law principles. As restrictions on trade, CNCs are not favored by Virginia courts, which will enforce only narrowly drafted CNCs that do not offend public policy.

In Virginia, a plaintiff must prove by a preponderance of the evidence that the covenant is reasonable in the sense that it is: (1) no greater than necessary to protect its legitimate business interests, such as a trade secret; (2) not unduly harsh or oppressive in restricting the employee's ability to earn a living; and (3) not against public policy. Paramount Termite Control Co., Inc v. Rector, 380 S.E.2d 922, 924 (Va. 1989).

Legitimate business interest

In Virginia, courts weigh the (1) function, (2) geographic scope and (3) duration of the CNC against the employer's legitimate business interests to determine their reasonableness.[40] Additionally, CNCs are only reasonable if they prevent the employee from entering into direct competition with the employer and must not encompass any activity in which the employer is not engaged.[41] Virginia courts will not generally attempt to revise or enforce a narrower restriction in a non-compete agreement. As a result, a drafting error or unenforceable restriction may render the entire agreement unenforceable in Virginia.[42]

Reasonable restriction on employee's ability to earn a living

Second, to enforce the CNC, a Plaintiff must show that it is not unduly harsh or oppressive in restricting the employee's ability to earn a living. In Virginia, a CNC is not unduly harsh or oppressive if balancing its function, geographic scope and duration the employee is not precluded from (1) working in a capacity not in competition with the employer within the restricted area or (2) providing similar services outside the restricted area.[43]

Public policy

Third, to enforce a CNC, a Plaintiff must show the CNC is reasonable from the standpoint of a sound public policy. Virginia does not favor restrictions on employment and therefore CNCs are generally held against public policy unless they are narrowly drafted as enumerated above. In Virginia, a CNC does not violate public policy if the restrictions it imposes do not create a monopoly for the services offered by the employer or create a shortage of the skills provided by the employee.[44]

Washington

According to Racine v. Bender, CNCs will be enforced by courts if they are validly formed and reasonable.[45] There are exceptions, like in Labriola v. Pollard Group, Inc., where the Washington Supreme Court invalidated a CNC not supported by independent consideration by strictly enforcing the pre-existing duty rule.[46]

Canada

Canadian courts will enforce non-competition and non-solicitation agreements, however, the agreement must be limited in time frame, business scope, and geographic scope to what is reasonably required to protect the company's proprietary rights, such as confidential marketing information or client relations[47] and the scope of the agreement must be unambiguously defined. The 2009 Supreme Court of Canada case Shafron v. KRG Insurance Brokers (Western) Inc. 2009 SCC 6, held a non-compete agreement to be invalid due to the term "Metropolitan City of Vancouver" not being legally defined.[48]

The 2000 Ontario Court of Appeals case Lyons v. Multary established a general preference towards non-solicitation over non-competition agreements, regarding the latter as "much more drastic weapons" and held a non-competition agreement to be invalid when a non-solicitation agreement would have been sufficient to protect the company's interests.

Europe

Generally, CNCs are allowable in Europe only if the employer can show a reasonable business interest in having a CNC.

India

Section 27 of Indian Contract Act has a general bar on any agreement that puts a restriction on trade.[54] On this basis, it would appear that all non-compete clauses in India are invalid. However, the Supreme Court of India has clarified that some non-compete clauses may be in interest of trade and commerce, and such clauses are not barred by Section 27 of the Contract Act, and therefore valid in India.[55] Notably, only those clauses backed by a clear objective that is considered to be in advantage of trade and commerce survives this test. For instance, a co-founder of a startup who signed a non-compete clause can be held to it,[56] but if a junior software developer or a call center employee signs a non-compete clause with the employer the same may not be enforceable.[57]

Pakistan

According to Section 27 of Contract Act, 1872, any agreement that restrains a person from exercising a lawful profession, trade or business is void.[58] However, courts of Pakistan have made decisions in the past in favour of such restrictive clauses given that the restrictions are "reasonable".[59] The definition of "reasonable" depends on the time-period, geographical location and the designation of employee. The High Court of Sindh in Exide Pakistan Limited vs. Abdul Wadood, 2008 CLD 1258 (Karachi) stated that reasonableness of the clause will vary from case to case and depends mainly on duration and extent of geographical territory [60]

While CNCs are one of the most common types of restrictive covenants, there are many others. Each serves a specific purpose and provides specific rights and remedies. The most common types of restrictive covenants are as follows:

The enforceability of these agreements depends on the law of the particular state. As a general rule, however, with the exception of invention assignment agreements, they are subject to the same analysis as other CNCs.[61]

Cases

Notes

  1. 1 2 Alger, 36 Mass. at 52 (1837).
  2. ↑ Oblon, David. "Maryland Federal Court Voids Non-Compete Even After "Blue Penciling" It. (2012)". albo-oblon.com. Albo-Oblon L.L.P. Retrieved 7 July 2014.
  3. ↑ Cal. Bus. & Prof. Code §§ 16600, 16601
  4. 1 2 Alger, 36 Mass. at 53 (1837).
  5. ↑ Mitchel v. Reynolds, 24 Eng. Rep. 347 (Q.B. 1711)
  6. ↑ C. L. Fisk, Working Knowledge: Trade Secrets, Restrictive Covenants in Employment, and the Rise of Corporate Intellectual Property, 1800-1920, 52 Hastings Law Journal no. 2, 453-54 (2001); see also Alger, 36 Mass. at 53.
  7. ↑ Larson, Aaron. "How do Non-Compete Agreements Work". ExpertLaw.com. Retrieved 11 June 2017.
  8. ↑ "Study Finds Many Companies Require Non-Compete Clauses For Low-Wage Workers". All Things Considered. Michigan Radio. 7 November 2016. Retrieved 11 June 2017. (Approximately 18 percent of the U.S. workforce is bound by a non-compete agreement.)
  9. ↑ Tompkins, Al (7 August 2008). "New York Limits ‘Non-Compete’ Contracts for Broadcasters". Poynter. Retrieved 11 June 2017.
  10. ↑ Cal. Bus. & Prof. Code § 16600; see e.g. Edwards v. Arthur Andersen LLP, 44 Cal. 4th 937 (2008).
  11. 1 2 "Calif. Supreme Court finds noncompete clauses invalid". CNET. November 8, 2008. Retrieved 2008-11-09. Microsoft and Google battled over a noncompete clause in 2005, when Google hired Kai-Fu Lee, an expert in speech recognition technology, even though he had signed a noncompete agreement at Microsoft. Google unsuccessfully worked to move the case from Washington to California, in hopes that the noncompete clause would be ruled invalid. The case was eventually settled outside of court.
  12. ↑ 61 Cal. App. 4th 881 (1998).
  13. ↑ See EMC Corp. v. Donatelli, Suffolk Superior Court, Civil Action 09-1727-BLS2 (2009).
  14. ↑ Cal. Bus. & Prof. Code § 16601.
  15. ↑ Cal. Bus. & Prof. Code § 16602.
  16. ↑ Cal. Bus. & Prof. Code § 16602.5.
  17. ↑ State of Florida. "542.335 - Valid Restraints of Trade". Online Sunshine. State of Florida. Retrieved 26 April 2015.
  18. ↑ Vanko, Kenneth. "A Quick State-By-State Guide on the Blue-Pencil Rule". Legal Developments In Non-Competition Agreements. Kenneth Vanko. Retrieved 26 April 2015.
  19. ↑ Pollard, Jonathan. "Recent Florida Non-Compete Cases: A Decision from the 3rd DCA on Independent Clauses". Jonathan Pollard LLC. Jonathan Pollard LLC. Retrieved 26 April 2015.
  20. ↑ Hawaii Bans Non-Compete and Non-Solicit Clauses in High-Tech Employment
  21. ↑ Reliable Fire Equipment Co. v. Arredondo, 2011 IL 111871 (2011).
  22. ↑ Bires v. Waltom, Case No. 8-4680 (2009).
  23. ↑ Fifield v. Premier Dealer Services, 993 N.E.2d 938, 942 (Ill. App. Ct. 1st Dist. 2013) (2013).
  24. ↑ McInnis v OAG 2015 IL App (1st) 130097 (June 25, 2015)
  25. ↑ See e.g., Novelty Bias Binding Co. v. Shevrin, 342 Mass. 714, 716 (1961); Marine Contractors Co., Inc. v. Hurley, 365 Mass. 280, 287 (1974); Edwards v. Athena Capital Advisors, Inc., C.A. No. 07-2418-E, 2007 Mass. Super. LEXIS 378, 4-5 (Super. Ct. Aug. 7, 2007). See also Russell Beck (September 5, 2008). "Noncompete Agreements That Don't Mean What They Say". Archived from the original on 2008-09-11.; Russell Beck, Negotiating, Drafting and Enforcing Noncompetition Agreements & Related Restrictive Covenants (MCLE 5th Ed. 2015).
  26. ↑ See Sherman v. Pfefferkorn, 241 Mass. 468 (1922).
  27. ↑ Lunt v. Campbell, No. 07-3845-BLS, *5 (Super. Ct Sept. 2007), quoting Boulanger v. Dunkin' Donuts Inc., 442 Mass. 635, 639 (2004), citing Marine Contrs. Co. v. Hurley, 365 Mass. 280, 287-88, 289 (1974) and All Stainless, Inc. v. Colby, 364 Mass. 773, 778 (1974).
  28. ↑ Edwards v. Athena Capital Advisors, Civil Action No. 07-2418-E (Super. Ct. Aug. 7, 2007) (“Covenants not to compete are valid if they are reasonable in view of all the facts in a particular case.”), citing Marine Contractors. Co. v. Hurley, 365 Mass. 280, 287-288 (1974); All Stainless, Inc. v. Colby, 364 Mass. 773, 778 (1974).
  29. ↑ Sentry Ins. v. Firnstein, 14 Mass. App. Ct. 706, 707 (1982) (quoting Restatement (Second) of Contracts § 188 comment g (1981)); Zabota Community Center, Inc. v. Frolova, No. 061909BLS1, *2 (May 18, 2006).
  30. ↑ See Edwards v. Athena Capital Advisors, Inc., C.A. No. 07-2418-E, 2007 Mass. Super. LEXIS 378 (Super. Ct., Aug. 7, 2007), quoting All Stainless, Inc. v. Colby, 364 Mass. 773, 778 (1974).
  31. ↑ EMC Corp. v. Gresham, No. 01-2084-BLS (Super. Ct. Nov. 2001), citing Novelty Bias Binding Co. v. Shevrin, 342 Mass. 714, 716 (1961); Marine Contractors Co., Inc. v. Hurley, 365 Mass. 280, 287 (1974).
  32. ↑ Marine Contractors Co., Inc. v. Hurley, 365 Mass. 280, 287 (1974), citing All Stainless, Inc. v. Colby, 364 Mass. 773, 779-80 (1974); Sentry Insurance v. Firnstein, 14 Mass. App. Ct. 706, 708 (1982); Lunt v. Campbell, No. 07-3845-BLS, *5 (Super. Ct. Sept. 2007), citing Boulanger v. Dunkin' Donuts Inc., 442 Mass. 635, 641 (2004); EMC Corp. v. Gresham, No. 01-2084-BLS (Super. Ct. Nov. 2001), citing Kroeger v. Stop & Shop Co. Inc., 13 Mass. App. Ct. 310, 316 (1982).
  33. ↑ Novelty Bias Binding Co., v. Shevrin, 342 Mass. 714, 716-17 (1961).
  34. ↑ See Marine Contractors Co., Inc. v. Hurley, 365 Mass. 280, 288 (1974) (“Marine's interest in protecting its accrued good will from possible incursions by Hurley is not weakened by the fact that it negotiated the agreement not to compete at the end of Hurley's employment rather than at some earlier time.”); Novelty Bias Binding Co., v. Shevrin, 342 Mass. 714 (1961); Richmond Bros. Inc. v. Westinghouse Bdcst. Co. Inc., 357 Mass. 106 (1970). But see Zabota Community Center, Inc. v. Frolova, No. 061909BLS1, *2 n.3 (Super. Ct. May 2006) (Although the plaintiff cited its mid-employment threat of termination as proof of consideration for the CNC, the court “exercising its equitable powers, sees it rather differently.”).
  35. ↑ Texas Business and Commerce Code, Section 15.50a.
  36. ↑ Texas Business and Commerce Code, Section 15.50b.
  37. ↑ Sec. Serv. Fed. Credit Union v. Sanders, 264 S.W.3d 292, 297 (Tex. App.–San Antonio 2008, orig. proceeding)
  38. ↑ Romboy, Dennis (2016-03-09). "Utah lawmakers pass controversial bill on noncompete contracts". DeseretNews.com. Retrieved 2017-03-19.
  39. ↑ "What Utah Employers Need to Know About H.B. 251: Post-Employment Restrictions Act | Berman Fink Van Horn P.C.". Berman Fink Van Horn P.C. 2016-03-30. Retrieved 2017-03-19.
  40. ↑ See Advanced Marine Enters., Inc. v. PRC Inc., 501 S.E.2d 148, 155 (Va. 1998); Simmons v. Miller, 544 S.E.2d 666, 678 (Va. 2001) (stating that the function, geographic scope and duration of the CNC must be considered together to determine the reasonableness of the restriction).
  41. ↑ See e.g. Omniplex World Servs. Corp. v. US Investigations Servs., Inc., 618 S.E.2d 340, 342 (Va. 2005) (“covenants not to compete have only been upheld when employees are prohibited from competing directly with the former employer or through employment with a direct competitor.”); see also Motion Control Sys. v. East, 546 S.E.2d 424 (Va. 2001).
  42. ↑ Non-Competition Law Trends in Virginia, Virginia Employment Lawyers Blog, June 5, 2015
  43. ↑ See Paramount, 380 S.E.2d at 925.
  44. ↑ See Blue Ridge Anesthesia & Critical Care, Inc. v. Gidick, 389 S.E.2d 467, 470 (Va. 1990); Paramount, 380 S.E.2d at 925.
  45. ↑ Racine v. Bender, 141 Wash. 606, 615, 252 P. 115 (1927)
  46. ↑ Ayres, I., and Speidel, R.E. Studies in Contract Law, Seventh Edition. Foundation Press, New York, NY: 2008, p. 81
  47. ↑ http://www.cba.org/abc/nouvelles/pdf/ADD-enforceability.pdf
  48. ↑ Kelly Harris (6 April 2009). "AMBIGUITY MAKES NON-COMPETE CLAUSE INVALID: SCC". Archived from the original on 2009-07-10.
  49. ↑ "Gebonden aan concurrentiebeding?". Intermediair. 2004. Archived from the original on 2006-06-14.
  50. ↑
  51. ↑ German law, §74 HBS, abs. 2
  52. ↑ Clause de non-concurrence – conditions de validité. DroitBelge.net.
  53. ↑ Portuguese labour code, Article 136
  54. ↑
  55. ↑ Non-compete clauses in Employment Agreements: Are they enforceable in India?, iPleaders.in, 29 May 2014, retrieved 31 October 2014
  56. ↑ CO-FOUNDER’S AGREEMENT: Things you should look out for while entering into a co-founders agreement, iPleaders.in, 9 June 2014, retrieved 31 October 2014
  57. ↑ Is a non compete contract valid in India? If yes, to what level?, quora.com, 18 August 2012, retrieved 31 October 2014
  58. ↑ Labor and Employment Practice Group Non-Competition, LexMundi Puplications Ltd., 2010, retrieved 24 May 2016
  59. ↑ Can I be stopped from undertaking competitive work after resignation from a company?, 13 March 2014, retrieved 24 May 2016
  60. ↑ Counsel Pakistan - Corporate Decisions See Exide Pakistan Ltd. vs. Malik Abdul Wadood 2009 CLD 716 (Division Bench – Karachi)
  61. ↑ For more detailed information, see Beyond the noncompete
  62. ↑ "Apple Exec Hired From IBM Ordered to Stop Work". PC World. November 8, 2008. Retrieved 2008-11-09. In June 2006, Papermaster signed a non-compete agreement in which he agreed not to work for an IBM competitor for at least a year if he ever left IBM, according to court documents. He informed IBM of the Apple job offer last month. On October 20, IBM offered him a pay raise as well as the option to accept one year's salary if he promised not to go to a competitor, but Papermaster submitted his resignation the next day. On October 22, IBM filed suit.
  63. ↑ "Paul Teutul Jr Designs, A New Orange county Chopper versus Paul Teutul Sr?". TrendyPress. August 13, 2010. Retrieved 2011-02-07.

References

Alger v. Thacher, 36 Mass. 51, 52 (1837).

California Business and Professions Code

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