Brain implant

Brain implants, often referred to as neural implants, are technological devices that connect directly to a biological subject's brain – usually placed on the surface of the brain, or attached to the brain's cortex. A common purpose of modern brain implants and the focus of much current research is establishing a biomedical prosthesis circumventing areas in the brain that have become dysfunctional after a stroke or other head injuries.[1] This includes sensory substitution, e.g., in vision. Other brain implants are used in animal experiments simply to record brain activity for scientific reasons. Some brain implants involve creating interfaces between neural systems and computer chips. This work is part of a wider research field called brain-computer interfaces. (Brain-computer interface research also includes technology such as EEG arrays that allow interface between mind and machine but do not require direct implantation of a device.)

Neural implants such as deep brain stimulation and Vagus nerve stimulation are increasingly becoming routine for patients with Parkinson's disease and clinical depression respectively, proving themselves a boon for people with diseases which were previously regarded as incurable.

Purpose

Brain implants electrically stimulate, block[2] or record (or both record and stimulate simultaneously[3]) signals from single neurons or groups of neurons (biological neural networks) in the brain. The blocking technique is called intra-abdominal vagal blocking.[2] This can only be done where the functional associations of these neurons are approximately known. Because of the complexity of neural processing and the lack of access to action potential related signals using neuroimaging techniques, the application of brain implants has been seriously limited until recent advances in neurophysiology and computer processing power.

Research and applications

Research in sensory substitution has made significant progress since 1970. Especially in vision, due to the knowledge of the working of the visual system, eye implants (often involving some brain implants or monitoring) have been applied with demonstrated success. For hearing, cochlear implants are used to stimulate the auditory nerve directly. The vestibulocochlear nerve is part of the peripheral nervous system, but the interface is similar to that of true brain implants.

Multiple projects have demonstrated success at recording from the brains of animals for long periods of time. As early as 1976, researchers at the NIH led by Edward Schmidt made action potential recordings of signals from rhesus monkey motor cortexes using immovable "hatpin" electrodes,[4] including recording from single neurons for over 30 days, and consistent recordings for greater than three years from the best electrodes.

The "hatpin" electrodes were made of pure iridium and insulated with Parylene-c, materials that are currently used in the Cyberkinetics implementation of the Utah array.[5] These same electrodes, or derivations thereof using the same biocompatible electrode materials, are currently used in visual prosthetics laboratories,[6] laboratories studying the neural basis of learning,[7] and motor prosthetics approaches other than the Cyberkinetics probes.[8]

Schematic of the "Utah" Electrode Array

Other laboratory groups produce their own implants to provide unique capabilities not available from the commercial products.[9][10][11][12]

Breakthroughs include studies of the process of functional brain re-wiring throughout the learning of a sensory discrimination,[13] control of physical devices by rat brains,[14] monkeys over robotic arms,[15] remote control of mechanical devices by monkeys and humans,[16] remote control over the movements of roaches,[17] electronic-based neuron transistors for leeches,[18] the first reported use of the Utah Array in a human for bidirectional signalling.[19] Currently a number of groups are conducting preliminary motor prosthetic implants in humans. These studies are presently limited to several months by the longevity of the implants. The array now forms the sensor component of the Braingate.

Much research is also being done on the surface chemistry of neural implants in effort to design products which minimize all negative effects that an active implant can have on the brain, and that the body can have on the function of the implant.

Another type of neural implant that is being experimented on is Prosthetic Neuronal Memory Silicon Chips, which imitate the signal processing done by functioning neurons that allows peoples' brains to create long-term memories.

In 2016, scientists at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign announced development of tiny brain sensors for use postoperative monitoring, which melt away when they are no longer needed.[20]

Military

DARPA has announced its interest in developing "cyborg insects" to transmit data from sensors implanted into the insect during the pupal stage. The insect's motion would be controlled from a Micro-Electro-Mechanical System (MEMS) and could conceivably survey an environment or detect explosives and gas.[21] Similarly, DARPA is developing a neural implant to remotely control the movement of sharks. The shark's unique senses would then be exploited to provide data feedback in relation to enemy ship movement or underwater explosives.[22]

In 2006, researchers at Cornell University invented[23] a new surgical procedure to implant artificial structures into insects during their metamorphic development.[24][25] The first insect cyborgs, moths with integrated electronics in their thorax, were demonstrated by the same researchers.[26][27] The initial success of the techniques has resulted in increased research and the creation of a program called Hybrid-Insect-MEMS, HI-MEMS. Its goal, according to DARPA's Microsystems Technology Office, is to develop "tightly coupled machine-insect interfaces by placing micro-mechanical systems inside the insects during the early stages of metamorphosis".[28]

The use of neural implants has recently been attempted, with success, on cockroaches. Surgically applied electrodes were put on the insect, which were remotely controlled by a human. The results, although sometimes different, basically showed that the cockroach could be controlled by the impulses it received through the electrodes. DARPA is now funding this research because of its obvious beneficial applications to the military and other areas[29]

In 2009 at the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) Micro-electronic mechanical systems (MEMS) conference in Italy, researchers demonstrated the first "wireless" flying-beetle cyborg.[30] Engineers at the University of California at Berkeley have pioneered the design of a "remote controlled beetle", funded by the DARPA HI-MEMS Program. Filmed evidence of this can be viewed here.[31] This was followed later that year by the demonstration of wireless control of a "lift-assisted" moth-cyborg.[32]

Eventually researchers plan to develop HI-MEMS for dragonflies, bees, rats and pigeons.[33][34] For the HI-MEMS cybernetic bug to be considered a success, it must fly 100 metres (330 ft) from a starting point, guided via computer into a controlled landing within 5 metres (16 ft) of a specific end point. Once landed, the cybernetic bug must remain in place.[33]

In 2015 it was reported that scientists from the Perception and Recognition Neuro-technologies Laboratory at the Southern Federal University in Rostov-on-Don suggested using rats with microchips planted in their brains to detect explosive devices.[35][36][37]

In 2016 it was reported that American engineers are developing a system that would transform locusts into "remote controlled explosive detectors" with electrodes in their brains beaming information about dangerous substances back to their operators.[38]

Rehabilitation

Neurostimulators have been in use since 1997 to ease the symptoms of such diseases as epilepsy, Parkinson's Disease, dystonia and recently depression.

Current brain implants are made from a variety of materials such as tungsten, silicon, platinum-iridium, or even stainless steel. Future brain implants may make use of more exotic materials such as nanoscale carbon fibers (nanotubes), and polycarbonate urethane.

Historical research

In 1870, Eduard Hitzig and Gustav Fritsch demonstrated that electrical stimulation of the brains of dogs could produce movements. Robert Bartholow showed the same to be true for humans in 1874. By the start of the 20th century, Fedor Krause began to systematically map human brain areas, using patients that had undergone brain surgery.

Prominent research was conducted in the 1950s. Robert G. Heath experimented with aggressive mental patients, aiming to influence his subjects' moods through electrical stimulation.[39]

Yale University physiologist Jose Delgado demonstrated limited control of animal and human subjects' behaviours using electronic stimulation. He invented the stimoceiver or transdermal stimulator, a device implanted in the brain to transmit electrical impulses that modify basic behaviours such as aggression or sensations of pleasure.

Delgado was later to write a popular book on mind control, called Physical Control of the Mind, where he stated: "the feasibility of remote control of activities in several species of animals has been demonstrated [...] The ultimate objective of this research is to provide an understanding of the mechanisms involved in the directional control of animals and to provide practical systems suitable for human application."

In the 1950s, the CIA also funded research into mind control techniques, through programs such as MKULTRA. Perhaps because he received funding for some research through the US Office of Naval Research, it has been suggested (but not proven) that Delgado also received backing through the CIA. He denied this claim in a 2005 article in Scientific American describing it only as a speculation by conspiracy-theorists. He stated that his research was only progressively scientifically motivated to understand how the brain works.

Concerns and ethical considerations

Who are good candidates to receive neural implants? What are the good uses of neural implants and what are the bad uses? Whilst deep brain stimulation is increasingly becoming routine for patients with Parkinson's disease, there may be some behavioural side effects. Reports in the literature describe the possibility of apathy, hallucinations, compulsive gambling, hypersexuality, cognitive dysfunction, and depression. However, these may be temporary and related to correct placement and calibration of the stimulator and so are potentially reversible.[40]

Some transhumanists, such as Raymond Kurzweil and Kevin Warwick, see brain implants as part of a next step for humans in progress and evolution, whereas others, especially bioconservatives, view them as unnatural, with humankind losing essential human qualities. It raises controversy similar to other forms of human enhancement. For instance, it is argued that implants would technically change people into cybernetic organisms (cyborgs). It's also expected that all research will comply to the Declaration of Helsinki. Yet further, the usual legal duties apply such as information to the person wearing implants and that the implants are voluntary, with (very) few exceptions.

Other concerns involve vulnerabilities of neural implants to cybercrime or intrusive surveillance as neural implants could be hacked, misused or misdesigned.[41]

Sadja states that "one's private thoughts are important to protect" and doesn't considers it a good idea to just charge the government or any company to protect them. Walter Glannon, a neuroethicist of the University of Calgary notes that "there is a risk of the microchips being hacked by third parties" and that "this could interfere with the user's intention to perform actions, violate privacy by extracting information from the chip".[42]

In fiction and philosophy

Brain implants are now part of modern culture but there were early philosophical references of relevance as far back as René Descartes.

In his 1641 Meditations, Descartes argued that it would be impossible to tell if all one's apparently real experiences were in fact being produced by an evil demon intent on deception. A modern twist on Descartes' argument is provided by the "brain in a vat" thought experiment, which imagines a brain, sustained apart from its body in a vat of nutrients, and hooked up to a computer which is capable of stimulating it in such a way as to produce the illusion that everything is normal.[43]

Popular science fiction discussing brain implants and mind control became widespread in the 20th century, often with a dystopian outlook. Literature in the 1970s delved into the topic, including The Terminal Man by Michael Crichton, where a man suffering from brain damage receives an experimental surgical brain implant designed to prevent seizures, which he abuses by triggering for pleasure. Another example is Larry Niven's science fiction writing of wire-heads in his "Known Space" stories.

Fear that the technology will be misused by the government and military is an early theme. In the 1981 BBC serial The Nightmare Man the pilot of a high-tech mini submarine is linked to his craft via a brain implant but becomes a savage killer after ripping out the implant.

Perhaps the most influential novel exploring the world of brain implants was William Gibson's 1984 novel Neuromancer. This was the first novel in a genre that came to be known as "cyberpunk". It follows a computer hacker through a world where mercenaries are augmented with brain implants to enhance strength, vision, memory, etc. Gibson coins the term "matrix" and introduces the concept of "jacking in" with head electrodes or direct implants. He also explores possible entertainment applications of brain implants such as the "simstim" (simulated stimulation) which is a device used to record and playback experiences.

Another example is "The Alliance ", in which a society is controlled by implants. Gibson's work led to an explosion in popular culture references to brain implants. Its influences are felt, for example, in the 1989 roleplaying game Shadowrun, which borrowed his term "datajack" to describe a brain-computer interface. The implants in Gibson's novels and short stories formed the template for the 1995 film Johnny Mnemonic and later, The Matrix Trilogy.

Pulp fiction with implants or brain implants include the novel series Typers, film Spider-Man 2, the TV series Earth: Final Conflict, and numerous computer/video games.

Film

Television

Video games

The game raises the question of the downsides of this kind of augmentation as those who cannot afford the enhancements (or object to getting them) rapidly find themselves at a serious disadvantage against people with artificial enhancement of their abilities. The spectre of being forced to have mechanical or electronic enhancements just to get a job is explored as well. The storyline addresses the effect of implant rejection by use of the fictional drug 'Neuropozyne' which breaks down glial tissue and is also fiercely addictive, leaving people who have augmentations little choice but to continue buying the drug from biotech corporations who control the price of it. Without the drug, augmented people experience rejection of implants, crippling pain and possible death.

See also

References

  1. ↑ Krucoff, Max O.; Rahimpour, Shervin; Slutzky, Marc W.; Edgerton, V. Reggie; Turner, Dennis A. (2016-01-01). "Enhancing Nervous System Recovery through Neurobiologics, Neural Interface Training, and Neurorehabilitation". Frontiers in Neuroscience. 10: 584. ISSN 1662-4548. PMC 5186786 Freely accessible. PMID 28082858. doi:10.3389/fnins.2016.00584.
  2. 1 2 "Implantable Device that Blocks Brain Signals Shows Promise in Obesity". Medscape. Retrieved 2013-08-25.
  3. ↑ Patrick Mahoney (June 21, 2007). "Wireless is getting under our skin". Machine Design. Archived from the original on 2008-06-04. Retrieved 2011-08-14.
  4. ↑ Schmidt, E.M.; Bak, M.J.; McIntosh, J.S. (1976). "Long-term chronic recording from cortical neurons". Experimental Neurology. 52 (3): 496–506. PMID 821770. doi:10.1016/0014-4886(76)90220-X.
  5. ↑ http://www.cyberkineticsinc.com/pdf/cyber.pdf Archived March 24, 2006, at the Wayback Machine. Cyberkinetics array
  6. ↑ Troyk, Philip; Bak, Martin; Berg, Joshua; Bradley, David; Cogan, Stuart; Erickson, Robert; Kufta, Conrad; McCreery, Douglas; Schmidt, Edward (2003). "A Model for Intracortical Visual Prosthesis Research". Artificial Organs. 27 (11): 1005–15. PMID 14616519. doi:10.1046/j.1525-1594.2003.07308.x.
  7. ↑ Blake, David T.; Heiser, Marc A.; Caywood, Matthew; Merzenich, Michael M. (2006). "Experience-Dependent Adult Cortical Plasticity Requires Cognitive Association between Sensation and Reward". Neuron. 52 (2): 371–81. PMC 2826987 Freely accessible. PMID 17046698. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2006.08.009.
  8. ↑ "Neuroscientists Demonstrate New Way to Control Prosthetic Device with Brain Signals" (Press release). Caltech. July 8, 2004. Archived from the original on July 19, 2011. Retrieved February 26, 2011.
  9. ↑ "Laboratory for Integrative Neural Systems | RIKEN". Riken.jp. Retrieved 2011-08-14.
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  18. ↑ Gross, Michael (September 2004). "Plugging brains into computers". Chemistry World. Royal Society of Chemistry. Retrieved 2008-04-25.
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  22. ↑ Military Plans Cyborg Sharks. LiveScience (7 March 2006). Retrieved on 29 August 2011.
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  25. ↑ Bozkurt A, Gilmour R, Sinha A, Stern D, Lal A (2009). Insect Machine Interface Based Neuro Cybernetics. IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, 56:6, pp. 1727–33. doi:10.1109/TBME.2009.2015460
  26. ↑ Bozkurt A., Paul A., Pulla S., Ramkumar R., Blossey B., Ewer J., Gilmour R, Lal A. (2007) Microprobe Microsystem Platform Inserted During Early Metamorphosis to Actuate Insect Flight Muscle. 20th IEEE International Conference on Micro Electro Mechanical Systems (MEMS 2007), Kobe, JAPAN, January 2007, pp. 405–408.
  27. ↑ Bozkurt A, Gilmour R, Stern D, Lal A. (2008) MEMS based Bioelectronic Neuromuscular Interfaces for Insect Cyborg Flight Control. 21st IEEE International Conference on Micro Electro Mechanical Systems (MEMS 2008), Tucson, AZ, January 2008, pp. 160–163. doi:10.1109/MEMSYS.2007.4432976
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  33. 1 2 Guizzo, Eric. "Moth Pupa + MEMS Chip = Remote Controlled Cyborg Insect." Automan. IEEE Spectrum, 17 Feb 2009. Web. 1 Mar 2010..
  34. ↑ Judy, Jack. "Hybrid Insect MEMS (HI-MEMS)". DARPA Microsystems Technology Office. Archived from the original on 10 February 2011. Retrieved 2013-04-09. The intimate control of insects with embedded microsystems will enable insect cyborgs, which could carry one or more sensors, such as a microphone or a gas sensor, to relay back information gathered from the target destination.
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  38. ↑ "Engineers develop cyborg locusts to sniff out explosives". The Telegraph. Retrieved 9 April 2017.
  39. ↑ "Septal stimulation for the initiation of heterosexual behavior in a homosexual male". Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry. 3: 23–30. doi:10.1016/0005-7916(72)90029-8.
  40. ↑ Burn, D. J.; Tröster, AI (2004). "Neuropsychiatric Complications of Medical and Surgical Therapies for Parkinson's Disease". Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry and Neurology. 17 (3): 172–80. PMID 15312281. doi:10.1177/0891988704267466.
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Further reading

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