Australian native police

Native Police, Rockhampton, 1864

Australian native police units, consisting of Aboriginal troopers under the command usually of a single white officer, existed in various forms in all Australian mainland colonies during the nineteenth and, in some cases, into the twentieth centuries. The Native Police were utilised as a cost effective paramilitary instrument in the expansion and protection of the colonial frontier. Mounted aboriginal troopers of the Native Police, armed with rifles, carbines and swords escorted surveying groups, pastoralists and prospectors into frontier areas. They would usually then establish base camps and patrol these areas to enforce warrants, conduct punitive missions against resisting local aboriginal groups, and fulfil various other duties. To maintain the imperial British method of "divide and conquer" and to reduce desertions, the aboriginals within the Native Police were routinely recruited from areas that were very distant from the frontier places in which they were deployed. As the troopers were aboriginal, this benefited the colonists by minimising both the wages of the police and the potential for aboriginal revenge attacks against white people. It also increased the efficiency of the force as the aboriginal troopers were vastly superior in their ability to track down dissidents in often poorly charted and difficult terrain.[1]

The first government funded force was the Native Police Corps, established in 1837 in the Port Phillip District of the then Australian colony of New South Wales (now Victoria).[2] From 1848 another force was organised in New South Wales, which operated mostly within the borders of the later colony of Queensland.[3] This force, sometimes called the "Native Mounted Police Force", was the largest and longest lasting of the mainland forces, and is most well known for conducting widespread extrajudicial shootings of aboriginal people under the official euphemism of “dispersal”.[4] It existed from 1848 to 1905, when the last Native Police camps in Queensland were closed.[5] The method of "dispersal" against aboriginals was also employed by the Native Police of other colonies and also by groups such as pastoral station workers[6] and the colonial British Army.[7] South Australia set up a short-lived Native Police force in 1852, which was re-established in 1884 and deployed into what is now the Northern Territory.[8] The colonial Western Australian government also initiated a formal Native Police force in 1840 under the command of John Nicol Drummond.[9] Other privately funded native police systems were also occasionally used in Australia, such as the native constabulary organised by the Australian Agricultural Company in the 1830's.[10] Native Police forces were also officially implemented in the Papua and New Guinea territories administered by colonial Queensland and Australian governments from 1890 until the 1970s.[11] The Australian government also organised a native police force on Nauru during its administration of the island from 1923 til 1968.[12]

Early prototypes of native police

The general template for native police forces in Australia was the sepoy and sowar armies of the East India Company. However, the more compact forces of the British imperial frontier like the Cape Regiment in southern Africa and the Kaffir and Malay Corps in Ceylon are a closer comparison.[13] Before the creation of the first official Native Police forces, there were some informal and privately funded examples of utilising aboriginals as enforcers of colonial law in Australia.

Hawkesbury/Nepean

The frequently violent process of taking control of the land from the aboriginals in this area was officially left to the settlers themselves,[14] who were reinforced, at times of major conflict, with soldiers "to inflict exemplary and severe punishments".[15] Coercing and influencing "friendly" aboriginals into assisting with the capture or elimination of other "hostile natives" was quickly adopted as a method of improving the efficiency of these punitive missions.[16]

In 1805, Hawkesbury chief constable Andrew Thompson exploited intra-clan rivalries by equipping two Darug men with firearms to aid in the destruction of another group of Darug. Seven or eight "hostile natives" were killed as a result and the two mercenaries were each promised a wife from the women seized during the raid.[17] Armed aboriginals were also used to capture runaway convicts in the region and John Macarthur sometimes appeared at public functions with a bodyguard of uniformed Dharawal and Gandangara men.[18]

Bathurst

In 1824, at the conclusion of the Bathurst War against the Wiradjuri, Governor Brisbane sent Major J.T. Morisset, commandant of the forces at Bathurst, a letter congratulating him on his efforts. In this letter, Brisbane outlines his desire to give "rewards to the natives who assisted in the police" and advised Morisset that he had "directed £50 subject to detailed accounts of its expenditure" to be at his disposal.[19]

Van Diemen's Land

Musquito was a Hawkesbury aboriginal who was exiled first to Norfolk Island in 1805, then to Van Diemen's Land in 1813. He proved to be a valuable asset to the government there in tracking down bushrangers. He later became a renegade and was himself tracked down and shot in the groin by another Hawkesbury aboriginal named Teague. Teague was sent by Hawkesbury settler Edward Luttrell to capture Musquito on the promise of a whaleboat as payment. Teague never received the boat and Musquito was hanged in 1825.[20] In the 1830s, John Batman also used armed aboriginals from the Sydney region such as Pigeon and Tommy to assist in his roving parties to capture or kill indigenous Tasmanians.[21]

Newcastle/Port Stephens

Up until at least 1830s, aboriginals around the Newcastle and Port Macquarie penal settlements were regularly utilised to recapture escaped convicts. Men such as Biraban and Jemmy Jackass would track down the runaways, disable them with spears, strip them and return them to the soldiers for payment of blankets and corn.[22]

At nearby Port Stephens, the Australian Agricultural Company had obtained a million acre land acquisition. In the early 1830s, the superintendent of the company, Sir Edward Parry, established a private native constabulary to augment a small garrison of soldiers. These black constables, such as Jonathan and William, were armed with firearms and mobilised to search for and eliminate threats such as hostile groups of aboriginals[23] and bushrangers.[24] Parry was later officially accused of putting bounties on the heads of certain aboriginals.[25] By 1841, the new superintendent P.P. King still employed black constables, but their duties may have been limited to dingo culling.[26]

Goulburn

Also in the 1830s, Major Edmund Lockyer a magistrate in the Goulburn region, employed at least one aboriginal constable who captured murderers and gangs of armed bushrangers in the region.[27]


Victoria

In the late 1830s, the NSW government found it was having trouble financing the NSW Mounted Police which was a corps of mounted soldiers that since 1825 operated as the main enforcers of colonial rule in frontier areas.[28] Officials looked at cheaper alternatives and came up with two solutions. One was the Border Police, which was a mounted force of armed convicts under the command of a commissioner, and the other was to trial a force of armed and mounted aboriginals under the command of white officers. By 1840 the Border Police became the main replacement for the NSW Mounted Police along the frontier, while the Native Police Corps, as the aboriginal force was known, was limited initially to one division in the Port Phillip District of the colony, around Melbourne. Requests for the establishment of a Native Police Corps were made from as early as 1837 when Captain William Lonsdale proposed legislation for its formation.[29]

Establishment

In October 1837, Christian Ludolph Johannes de Villiers was appointed to command the first official Native Police troopers from their station at Narre Narre Warren. It was disbanded briefly in January 1838 but reorganised in April of the same year with their new headquarters in Jolimont where the MCG carpark is now situated. Due to funding problems, the force was again dissolved in 1839. These issues delayed reformation of the corps until Superintendent Charles La Trobe indicated he was willing to underwrite the costs in 1842.[5] A significant factor in the restoration of the force was the successful capture of five Tasmanian aboriginals near Westernport in 1840 by local aboriginals who were attached to a party of Border Police and soldiers.

Native Police of Port Phillip, 1850

Henry EP Dana was selected to command the corps in 1842, which would be a mounted command consisting of aboriginal troopers and European officers. The command was initially established at the Aboriginal Protectorate Station at Narre Narre Warren, about 25 km south east of Melbourne, but Dana moved the headquarters in March 1842 to the banks of the Merri Creek.[5] The force made use of Aboriginal men from the Wurundjeri and Bunurong tribes as trackers. The corps was made up of 60 members, three quarters of whom were "natives".[30] There were two goals in such a force: to make use of the indigenous peoples' tracking abilities, as well as to assimilate the Aboriginal troopers into white society.[30] Both La Trobe and Aboriginal Protector William Thomas expected that the men would give up their ancestral way of life when exposed to the discipline of police work. To their disappointment troopers continued to participate in corroborees and in ritual fighting, although not in uniform.[5]

As senior Wurundjeri elder, Billibellary's cooperation for the proposal was important for its success, and after deliberation he backed the initiative and even proposed himself for enlistment. He donned the uniform and enjoyed the status of parading through the camp, but was careful to avoid active duty as a policeman to avoid a conflict of interest between his duties as a Wurundjeri ngurungaeta.[5]

After about a year Billibellary resigned from the Native Police Corps when he found that it was to be used to capture and even kill other natives. He did his best from then on to undermine the corps and as a result many native troopers deserted and few remained longer than three or four years.[31]

Duties

The duties of the native police included searching for missing persons, carrying messages, and escorting dignitaries through unfamiliar territory. During the goldrush era, they were also used to patrol goldfields and search for escaped prisoners.[32] They were provided with uniforms, firearms, food rations and a rather dubious salary. However, the lure of the goldfields, poor salary and Dana's eventual death in 1852 led to the official disintegration of his Native Police Corps in January 1853.[33]

Frontier clashes

Native police were called upon to take part in massacres of other Aboriginal people in the Victorian Western District in 1843.[34] Upon return to Melbourne one of the troopers boasted about an incident in which 17 Aboriginal men had been killed by the corps. From reports it seems likely the troopers were called upon by their commander, Henry EP Dana, to shoot rather than try to make arrests:

"Captain say big one stupid catch them very good shoot them, you blackfellows, no shoot them me hand cuff you and send you to jail." One of the troopers is recorded by Thomas to have said.[35]

With reduced reports of attacks in the Western District following two years of policing, two new troopers were signed up from the Port Fairy area in 1845.[36]

There were also clashes between the Native Police Corps and Gunai people in 1846 in the Snowy River region.[37]

Western Australia

In the late 1830s, Western Australia was in a similar situation as the eastern colonies in that the regular Mounted Police force were proving expensive and increasingly ineffectual in subduing resisting aboriginals. This culminated in 1840 with the murders of a white woman and her child in York. John Nicol Drummond, a young man who had grown up amongst aboriginals in the areas of the Swan and Helena Valleys, was able to capture the perpetrator due to his knowledge of the local tribespeople. As a result, in August 1840 Drummond was rewarded with the title of Inspector in the newly formed Native Police. The Western Australian Native Police was smaller than those of other colonies in that usually only 2 or 3 mounted aboriginal constables were attached to the white officer. It was also different in that the officers were given monetary rewards for capturing wanted people and that they were placed under the control of the Native Protector. However, extrajudicial killings by the police upon aborigines still occurred during the 1840s. The force also became less formalised in its command structure to the point where, in 1854, Drummond concurrently held the positions of Native Protector, magistrate and Superintendent of Police in the Champion Bay area. This situation gave Drummond complete freedom to subdue the natives around Geraldton in whatever method he deemed appropriate and a massacre of aboriginals conducted by the police and armed stockholders at Bootenal swamp near Greenough was the result.[38]

The official term Native Police in the colony soon gradually phased out and was replaced with terms such as native constables and native assistants, but these operated in the same way as before. In 1865, Maitland Brown's extensive punitive expedition through the La Grange and Roebuck Bay areas utilised native police to aid in the summary executions of local aboriginals.[39] As late as the 1920s, native constables or trackers as they by then were called, aided white officers and stockmen in massacres of aboriginal people. A famous example of this is the Forrest River massacre.[40]


New South Wales

Frederick Walker

From 1839 the main frontier policing force in this colony were divisions of mounted convict soldiers known as the Border Police.[41] However, in the late 1840s with the end of convict transportation looming, a new source of cheap and effective troopers were required to subdue resistance along the ever-extending frontier. The need was especially apparent in the north as conflict between squatters and aboriginals toward the Darling Downs area was risking pastoral advancement.[42] As a result, the NSW government passed legislation in 1848 to fund a new section of Native Police based upon the Port Phillip model.[43] Frederick Walker, a station manager and court official residing in the Murrumbidgee area, was appointed as the first Commandant of this Native Police force. After recruiting and training 14 troopers from 4 tribes around the Riverina area, in 1849 he mobilised his force north beyond the MacIntyre River to conduct missions to pacify the disturbed area.[44] Walker advocated a method of "bringing in" the aboriginals, forcing them onto pastoral stations so as they could be easily controlled. Those who stayed away were consequently regarded as potential enemies and were at high risk of being targeted in punitive missions. Walker also promoted his troopers to differentiate and elevate themselves from other aboriginals, encouraging the use of denigrating terms such as "charcoals" to describe aboriginals not involved in the police.

Although most of the subsequent operations of this force over the following 60 years occurred in what is now Queensland, it is often overlooked that Native Police were stationed in various parts of New South Wales and patrolling continued there until at least 1868. These areas included Kempsey/Macleay River, Grafton/Ballina, Murray/Murrumbidgee, Darling and Far West regions.

Grafton/Ballina

Edric Norfolk Vaux Morisset

In 1853, Walker reluctantly deployed the 5th Section of the Native Police under 2nd Lieut. E.N.V. Morisset to the Clarence River region. He thought this was a "retrograde step" as he viewed the aboriginal problem is this area as minor.[45] But under pressure from powerful squatters in the area like William Forster he relented even though the section did not have enough horses. Morisset and his 12 troopers were stationed on the Orara River 10 miles south of Grafton and were involved in two major dispersals not long after. Morisset was given warrants for some aboriginals who worked as shearers at Newton Boyd and after arriving in the area on a borrowed horse, ordered his troops to open fire. Several wanted men were shot and some captured, although other reports claim many aboriginals were killed. This resulted in a government inquiry but nothing came of it.[46] The other significant punitive raid occurred in East Ballina, where the troopers conducted an early morning raid on aboriginals sleeping on the slopes near Black Head. This resulted in at least 40 deaths and many wounded. Again complaints were made to the government about the massacre but again nothing resulted.[47] Edric Morisset later became Commandant of the Native Police based in Brisbane and was replaced on the Clarence by 2nd Lieut. Bligh. A few years later when a Clarence River squatter was asked if he thought any aboriginal criminals were still at large, he simply replied "No, I think they are dead."[48] The Native Police were officially withdrawn from the area in 1859 but punitive missions still occurred under more regular police forces. Sub-Inspector Galbraith was dismissed in 1863 for the shooting death of a native girl while out "routing the blacks" near Grafton.[49]

Kempsey/Macleay River

In 1854, Sub Lieut. Dempster who was initially stationed as a sergeant at Grafton with Morisset was ordered to travel to the Macleay River with six troopers and set up a Native Police station near Kempsey.[50] Squatters in the area had recently placed official requests for a section to be garrisoned on the Macleay.[51] The Native Police camp was located at the old Border Police barracks at Belgrave Flat near Belgrave Falls just west of Kempsey.[52] There is a record of a punitive expedition involving native police troopers in the mid 1850s after an aboriginal attack on Wabro Homestead.[53] In 1859, 2nd Lieut. Richard Bedford Poulden (sometimes written as Poulding) was deployed to Belgrave Flat with his troopers from the Upper Dawson area in Queensland. Poulden was previously an Ensign in 56th Foot who fought in the Crimean War, and was the great-grandson of the Earl of Devon.[54] In addition to performing patrolling duties, he also came for the purpose of recruiting more troopers.[55] In 1859 he conducted a raid on aboriginals living at Christmas Creek near Frederickton.[56] He captured a Dunghutti man called Doughboy but others such as Blue-Shirt managed to elude him. In 1860, Poulden was soon called out again to "punish the blacks" who had laid siege to Mrs McMaugh at Nulla Nulla Creek. Poulden and his six troopers tracked them up Five Day Creek to the ranges where several were killed after a gunfight. The local resisting aboriginals had access to firearms by this stage. A child was taken after the skirmish and given to local Towal Creek squatter John Warne.[57] This child was a girl about the age of twelve and she was later taken to Sydney. The native police involved in such raids used to strip naked and had to wear red headbands to distinguish them from the "wild blacks", so as to prevent shooting each other by mistake.[58]

Not long after this, at the request of prominent station manager John Vaughan McMaugh, the Belgrave Flat Native Police barracks was moved to Nulla Nulla station near Bellbrook.[59] After some cedar cutters were killed nearby in an ambush, stockmen and native police troopers went out after the perceived perpetrators. Again another gun battle ensued and in the end there were a great number of dead and wounded Dunghutti. The creek where this occurred was named Waterloo Creek (half way between Dyke River and Georges Creek) as a result of the carnage. Four prisoners were taken.[60]

In 1863, Senior Constable Nugent took control of the Native Police at Nulla Nulla. In September 1864, he and his troopers were involved in a punitive mission that ranged from Georges Creek, Lagoon Creek and then up Five Day Creek to Moy Buck Mountain where a dispersal occurred.[61] Later in 1864, there is a record of Blue Shirt being captured and handcuffed to the stirrup of a horse belonging to a Native Police trooper. The horse subsequently kicked him in the head, killing him.[62] Names of some of the troopers posted to the Macleay region include Carlo, Quilt, Paddy and Dundally.

Nulla Nulla barracks appears to have closed in 1865 when Henry Sauer bought the property and turned it into a dairy farm. In 1885, 36.4 hectares of the property was gazetted ironically as an Aboriginal Reserve.[63] In 1902 the skeletons of a woman and child with shot holes in their skulls were found on Taylors Arm Mountain in the Macleay region. It was reported as a double murder mystery.[64] Local aboriginal Left-Handed Billy solved the case by stating that there was a Native Police camp at Nulla Nulla and these two people were some of its victims. Billy offered to take the authorities and show them the other places where people were shot.[65]

Queensland

Queensland's Native Police Force was the longest operating force of its kind in colonial Australian history. It was arguably also the most controversial. Its mode of operation cannot by any standard be classified as "law enforcement". At least from the period 1857 onward to 1890s there are no signs that this force was engaged in anything but general punitive expeditions, commonly performed as deadly daybreak attacks on Aboriginal camps. All signs are that the force generally took no prisoners at the frontier and in the few cases on record when this did happen these prisoners were on record as having been shot during attempts to escape.[66]

Initial deployment

The Native Police Force in Queensland (sometimes referred to at the 'Native Mounted Police') came into effect on 17 August 1848 under the command of Frederick Walker. Walker recruited 14 native troopers from four different language groups along the Murrumbidgee, Murray, and Edwards Rivers areas. The troopers were Jack, Henry (both Wiradjuri), Geegwaw, Jacky Jacky, Wygatta, Edward, Logan (all Wemba-Wemba), Alladin, Paddy, Larry, Willy, Walter, Tommy Hindmarsh (all Barapa Barapa), and Yorky (Yorta Yorta). Logan and Jack who were both previously employed in the Border Police, were given the rank of corporal. This force was consolidated and trained at Deniliquin before travelling to the Darling River where the first hostile engagement occurred at Moorna (Moanna), resulting in at least 5 natives being killed by the troopers. Once arriving on the Macintyre River on 10 May 1849, the force aggressively pacified the local aboriginals resulting in "some lives lost". They were then deployed to the Condamine River where the "Fitzroy Downs blacks" were routed and another group were "compelled to fly" from the area.[67]

Walker found most of the squatters and magistrates in the region thought the Native Police were there to shoot down the natives so they wouldn't have to. Walker encouraged the squatters to admit the local aboriginals onto their runs so that they could be easily observed and controlled. This was done and Walker's measure of success was the resulting increase in land values.[68] These first actions of the Native Police reduced to great effect Aboriginal attacks and resistance against squatters in the Macintyre and Condamine regions.[69]

Expansion to Maranoa, Burnett and Wide Bay areas

Walker returned to Deniliquin in July 1850 to recruit 30 new troopers[70] in order to enable an expansion into the Wide Bay-Burnett region.[71] With these fresh reinforcements, he created four divisions of Native Police, one based at Callandoon, one at Wide Bay-Burnett, one in the Maranoa Region, and one roving division.

In Queensland, southern tribes were used in skirmishes involving northern language groups.[72] One of the sub-inspectors was Thomas Coward (1834–1905), after whom Coward Springs, South Australia is named.

A.J. Vogan's 'Black Police', written as fiction, is, he claims, closely based on incidents he saw or investigated in 1888-1889. It includes stories of atrocities committed by the Queensland Native Police in close cooperation with settlers antagonistic to the presence of Aboriginal people on or near their runs. This book, continued newspaper focus on incidents, an increasingly active and influential social criticism, especially by religious interests eventually had some effect. John G. Paton wrote in 1889 that, two years previously, Samuel Griffith, the Premier of Queensland, "had these blood-stained forces disbanded for ever."[73] This, however, is not entirely true, Griffith did not disband the force during his term in government, it was only gradually disbanded from the late 1890s onwards.[74]

South Australia

Commissioner Alexander Tolmer formed the South Australian Native Police Force in 1852 at the specific direction of the South Australian Government. Later that year a newspaper reported, “A dozen powerful natives, chiefly of the Moorundee tribe [from Blanchetown, South Australia district on the River Murray], have been selected to be sent to the Port Lincoln district to act as Mounted Police.”[75] The little corps, under the command of Mounted Police Corporal John Cusack (1809–1887), sailed for Port Lincoln on the government schooner Yatala on 29 December 1852, for service on Eyre Peninsula. It was confidently expected they would be usefully employed in protection of the settlers in that district.[76]

The Native Police were soon extended, the strength in 1856 being:- Murray District (half each at Moorundee and Wellington): 2 inspectors, 2 corporals, 13 constables, 16 horses ; Venus Bay: 1 sergeant, 1 corporal, 7 constables, 8 horses.

The six officers and non-commissioned officers were all European, while the twenty constables were all Aboriginal, all being issued with standard police arms and uniforms. Both Aboriginal and European offenders were brought to justice by these men, but on Eyre Peninsula the Aboriginals were largely ineffectual as they were in unfamiliar territory, while on the Murray the entire force went walkabout and did not return.[77]

In 1857 it was abolished as a distinct corps, although a few Aboriginal constables continued to be employed from time to time at certain remote police stations. Also, Aboriginal trackers were employed as needed, but were not sworn police constables. In 1884 a native police scheme was revived by the South Australia Police in Central Australia (see Northern Territory, below), but this time it was based on the more notorious Queensland and New South Wales models.

Northern Territory

In 1884, the South Australian Police Commissioner, William John Peterswald established a Native Police Force. Six Aboriginal men were recruited in November 1884. Aged between 17 and 26 years of age, they came from Alice Springs, Charlotte Waters, Undoolya and Macumba. The Native Police became notorious for their violent activities, especially under the command of Constable William Willshire. In 1891, two Aboriginal men were 'shot whilst attempting to escape'. The deaths were noticed and the South Australian Register called for an Enquiry to establish whether or not police had been justified in killing the two Aboriginal men.

Eventually, F.J. Gillen, Telegraph Stationmaster and Justice of the Peace at Alice Springs, received instructions from the Government to investigate the matter and report to the Attorney-General. Gillen found Willshire responsible for ordering the killings. At the conclusion of Gillen’s investigation, Willshire was suspended, arrested and charged with murder. He became the first Northern Territory police officer charged with this offence. He was subsequently acquitted.[78]

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ Queensland. Parliament. Legislative Assembly. Select Committee on Native Police Force and the Condition of the Aborigines Generally. (1861), Report from the Select Committee on the Native Police Force and the Condition of the Aborigines Generally together with the proceedings of the Committee and minutes of evidence, Fairfax and Belbridge, retrieved 22 July 2017
  2. ↑ Fels, Marie Hansen (1988). Good Men and True: The Aboriginal Police of the Port Phillip District 1837-1853.
  3. ↑ Skinner, L.E. (1975). Police of the Pastoral Frontier. St Lucia: Univeristy of Queensland Press.
  4. ↑ Bottoms, Timothy (2013). Conspiracy of Silence. Allen & Unwin.
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 Isabel Ellender and Peter Christiansen, pp 87-90 People of the Merri Merri. The Wurundjeri in Colonial Days, Merri Creek Management Committee, 2001 ISBN 0-9577728-0-7; Queensland Legislative Assembly Votes & Proceedings 1861 p 386pp, "Report from the Select Committee on the Native Police Force and the condition of the aborigines generally"; Feilberg, Carl Adolf (anonymous): "The Way We Civilise; Black and White; The Native Police: - A series of articles and letters Reprinted from the ‘Queenslander’", Brisbane, G and J. Black, Edward Street, December 1880, 57 pages; Richards, Jonathan: The Secret War. A True History of Queensland's Native Police, St Lucia Queensland 2008, 308 pages incl. ill. and appendixes.
  6. ↑ Eldershaw, Finney (1854). Australia as it Really Is, in Its Life, Scenery and Adventure. London: Darton & Co.
  7. ↑ Connor, John (2002). The Australian Frontier Wars, 1788-1838. Sydney: UNSW Press.
  8. ↑ Robert Foster and Amanda Nettelbeck (2007). In the Name of the Law. Wakefield Press.
  9. ↑ Pashley, A.R. (2002). A Colonial Pioneer.
  10. ↑ "Early Days of Port Stephens". Dungog Chronicle : Durham And Gloucester Advertiser. New South Wales, Australia. 30 August 1927. p. 6. Retrieved 30 July 2017 – via National Library of Australia.
  11. ↑ Kituai, A.I.K. (1998). My Gun, My Brother. University of Hawaii Press.
  12. ↑ Pacific islands monthly : PIM, Pacific Publications, 1931, retrieved 30 July 2017
  13. ↑ Richards, Johnathan. "Native Police". Queensland Historical Atlas. Retrieved 5 August 2017.
  14. ↑ "General Orders". Sydney Gazette. 28 April 1805.
  15. ↑ "Historical Records of Australia". Series 1. 8: 467.
  16. ↑ "Postscript". Sydney Gazette. 5 May 1805.
  17. ↑ "Sydney". Sydney Gazette. 12 May 1805.
  18. ↑ Turbet, Peter (2011). The First Frontier. pp. 163, 268.
  19. ↑ "Papers Relating to Colonel and Mrs Emily Morisset". Am34. Appendix A. 1841.
  20. ↑ Lowe, David (1994). Forgotten Rebels. pp. 10–11.
  21. ↑ Batman, John., John Batmans diary from March 3rd 1830, retrieved 30 July 2017
  22. ↑ Bigge, J.T. (1822). The State of the Colony of NSW, Vol 1. p. 117.
  23. ↑ "Early Days of Port Stephens". Dungog Chronicle : Durham And Gloucester Advertiser. New South Wales, Australia. 12 November 1926. p. 3. Retrieved 27 July 2017 – via National Library of Australia.
  24. ↑ "A Runaway's Fate". Dungog Chronicle : Durham And Gloucester Advertiser. New South Wales, Australia. 26 November 1926. p. 6. Retrieved 27 July 2017 – via National Library of Australia.
  25. ↑ In the Service of the Company: Letters of Sir Edward Parry. Vol 2. ANU Press. 2003. pp. 196–197.
  26. ↑ Accounts and Papers, Correspondence relative to Emigration, NSW. Vol 6. 1842. pp. 103–104.
  27. ↑ Accounts and Papers: Correspondence relative to emigration, NSW, Vol 6. 1842. p. 86.
  28. ↑ O'Sullivan, John (1979). Mounted Police in NSW. Rigby.
  29. ↑ "Proposal for the regulations for the formation of an Aboriginal Police Corps". Retrieved 29 July 2017.
  30. 1 2 Public Records Office Victoria, Dana's Native Police Corps (1842-1853) - Tracking the Native Police (Public Record Office Victoria) Archived 1 May 2007 at the Wayback Machine., accessed 2 November 2008
  31. ↑ Shirley W. Wiencke, When the Wattles Bloom Again: The Life and Times of William Barak, Last Chief of the Yarra Yarra Tribe, Published by S.W. Wiencke, 1984, ISBN 0-9590549-0-1, ISBN 978-0-9590549-0-3
  32. ↑ Public Records Office Victoria, Large Variety of Duties of the Native Police - Tracking the Native Police (Public Record Office Victoria), accessed 2 November 2008
  33. ↑ Public Records Office Victoria, The disbanding of the Native Police - Tracking the Native Police (Public Record Office Victoria) Archived 28 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine. Accessed 2 November 2008
  34. ↑ Clark, Ian (1995). Scars in the Landscape. Retrieved 30 July 2017.
  35. ↑ Public Records Office Victoria, Western District Clashes - Tracking the Native Police (Public Record Office Victoria) Archived 27 March 2011 at the Wayback Machine.. Accessed 2 November 2008
  36. ↑ Public Records Office Victoria, Western District Clashes Imposing Peace - Tracking the Native Police (Public Record Office Victoria) Archived 16 August 2008 at the Wayback Machine.. Accessed 2 November 2008
  37. ↑ Public Records Office Victoria, Gippsland Clashes - Tracking the Native Police (Public Record Office Victoria) Archived 4 September 2008 at the Wayback Machine.. Accessed 2 November 2008
  38. ↑ Pashley, A.R. (2002). A Colonial Pioneer: The Life and Times of John Nicol Drummond. Educant.
  39. ↑ "BLAZING THE TRAIL.". The West Australian. XLV, (8,576). Western Australia. 14 December 1929. p. 5. Retrieved 2 August 2017 – via National Library of Australia.
  40. ↑ "POLICE ARRESTED.". The Queenslander (9). Queensland, Australia. 9 June 1927. p. 36. Retrieved 2 August 2017 – via National Library of Australia.
  41. ↑ "No. 27. " An Act further to restrain the unauthorised " occupation of Crown Lands, and to provide " the means of defraying the expense of a " Border Police."". New South Wales Government Gazette (405). New South Wales, Australia. 6 April 1839. p. 393. Retrieved 4 August 2017 – via National Library of Australia.
  42. ↑ Copland, Mark. "The Native Police at Callandoon, A Blueprint for Forced Assimilation?" (PDF). Retrieved 3 August 2017.
  43. ↑ "No. LII. An Act for applying certain sums arising from the Revenue receivable in New South Wales, to the service thereof, for the year one thousand eight hundred and forty-nine; and for further appropriating the said Revenue. [Assented to, 16th June, 1848.]". New South Wales Government Gazette (68). New South Wales, Australia. 27 June 1848. p. 26 (VICTORIAE REGINAE). Retrieved 4 August 2017 – via National Library of Australia.
  44. ↑ "No. 2.". The Sydney Morning Herald. XXVII, (4081). New South Wales, Australia. 15 June 1850. p. 3. Retrieved 4 August 2017 – via National Library of Australia.
  45. ↑ "Correspondence from Frederick Walker 1853" (PDF). State Library of Queensland.
  46. ↑ "BLACKS AND EARLY DWELLERS". Clarence And Richmond Examiner. New South Wales, Australia. 3 November 1914. p. 6. Retrieved 4 August 2017 – via National Library of Australia.
  47. ↑ "Seventy-Five Years on the Richmond.". Casino And Kyogle Courier And North Coast Advertiser. 20, (59). New South Wales, Australia. 7 October 1922. p. 3. Retrieved 4 August 2017 – via National Library of Australia.
  48. ↑ "1858 Report from the select committee on murders by the aborigines on the Dawson River". Retrieved 4 August 2017.
  49. ↑ "CLARENCE AND RICHMOND DISTRICT.". The Courier (Brisbane). XVIII, (1688). Queensland, Australia. 11 July 1863. p. 3. Retrieved 4 August 2017 – via National Library of Australia.
  50. ↑ "Correspondence from Frederick Walker 1854" (PDF). State Library of Queensland. Retrieved 4 August 2017.
  51. ↑ "To the Editors of the Sydney Morning Herald.". The Sydney Morning Herald. XXXIII, (4806). New South Wales, Australia. 8 October 1852. p. 3. Retrieved 6 August 2017 – via National Library of Australia.
  52. ↑ "History Of Macleay And Early Pioneers". Macleay Argus (9712). New South Wales, Australia. 1 September 1950. p. 3. Retrieved 6 August 2017 – via National Library of Australia.
  53. ↑ "Peeps into the Past". Dungog Chronicle : Durham And Gloucester Advertiser. New South Wales, Australia. 29 June 1928. p. 4. Retrieved 6 August 2017 – via National Library of Australia.
  54. ↑ "Family Notices". The Sydney Morning Herald (13,941). New South Wales, Australia. 4 December 1882. p. 1. Retrieved 6 August 2017 – via National Library of Australia.
  55. ↑ "KEMPSEY.". Empire (newspaper) (3041). New South Wales, Australia. 4 July 1861. p. 8. Retrieved 4 August 2017 – via National Library of Australia.
  56. ↑ "MACLEAY RIVER.". The Sydney Morning Herald. XL, (6610). New South Wales, Australia. 15 August 1859. p. 2. Retrieved 4 August 2017 – via National Library of Australia.
  57. ↑ "THE MACLEAY RIVER BLACKS.". The Sydney Morning Herald. XLI, (6839). New South Wales, Australia. 9 May 1860. p. 12. Retrieved 6 August 2017 – via National Library of Australia.
  58. ↑ "A Week on the Macleay.". The Port Macquarie News And Hastings River Advocate. New South Wales, Australia. 28 April 1928. p. 6. Retrieved 8 August 2017 – via National Library of Australia.
  59. ↑ "Peeps into the Past.". The Port Macquarie News And Hastings River Advocate. New South Wales, Australia. 14 July 1928. p. 6. Retrieved 6 August 2017 – via National Library of Australia.
  60. ↑ "The Days of Yore.". The Port Macquarie News And Hastings River Advocate. New South Wales, Australia. 28 July 1928. p. 6. Retrieved 6 August 2017 – via National Library of Australia.
  61. ↑ "UPPER MACLEAY.". The Maitland Mercury And Hunter River General Advertiser. XXI, (2559). New South Wales, Australia. 11 October 1864. p. 3. Retrieved 6 August 2017 – via National Library of Australia.
  62. ↑ "The Days of Yore.". The Port Macquarie News And Hastings River Advocate. New South Wales, Australia. 28 July 1928. p. 6. Retrieved 6 August 2017 – via National Library of Australia.
  63. ↑ "Kempsey Shire Heritage Study" (PDF). Retrieved 6 August 2017.
  64. ↑ "A DOUBLE MURDER MYSTERY.". Queanbeyan Age. New South Wales, Australia. 19 February 1902. p. 2. Retrieved 6 August 2017 – via National Library of Australia.
  65. ↑ "THE TAYLOR'S ARM SKELETONS.". Macleay Argus (1920). New South Wales, Australia. 22 March 1902. p. 9. Retrieved 6 August 2017 – via National Library of Australia.
  66. ↑ The Way We Civilize editorials and articles authored and edited by Carl Feilberg and printed in the Brisbane Courier (and its weekly the Queenslander) between March and December 1880 and in the form of a pamphlet. see also L.E. Skinner, pp27 Police of the Pastoral Frontier. Native Police 1849-59, University of Queensland Press, 1975 ISBN 0-7022-0977-5; Richards, Jonathan: The secret War; Ørsted-Jensen, Robert: Frontier History Revisited and Bottoms, Timothy: Conspiracy of Silence, Allan & Unwin Sydney 2013.
  67. ↑ "Letters Received Colonial Secretary from Frederick Walker" (PDF). State Library of Queensland. Retrieved 10 August 2017.
  68. ↑ "NATIVE POLICE.". The Sydney Morning Herald. XXXII, (4708). New South Wales, Australia. 16 June 1852. p. 1 (Supplement to the Sydney Morning Herald). Retrieved 10 August 2017 – via National Library of Australia.
  69. ↑ L.E. Skinner, pp28-33 Police of the Pastoral Frontier. Native Police 1849-59, University of Queensland Press, 1975 ISBN 0-7022-0977-5
  70. ↑ "EDWARD'S RIVER.". The Melbourne Daily News. XIII, (7336). Victoria, Australia. 15 August 1850. p. 2. Retrieved 10 August 2017 – via National Library of Australia.
  71. ↑ "ORIGINAL CORRESPONDENCE.". The Sydney Morning Herald. XXIX, (4175). New South Wales, Australia. 3 October 1850. p. 7. Retrieved 10 August 2017 – via National Library of Australia.
  72. ↑ Queensland Native Mounted Police
  73. ↑ John G. Paton, Autobiography (12th edition, 1911), p. 262.
  74. ↑ Richards, Jonathan: The Secret War: a True History of Queensland's Native Police, St Lucia Queensland, 2008.
  75. ↑ Register, 2 December 1852, page 3.
  76. ↑ Register, 30 December 1852, page 2.
  77. ↑ Clyne, R.E., Colonial Blue, p120-121.
  78. ↑ Refer to Wilson, W.R. A Force Apart, PhD Thesis, NT University 2000 and The Establishment of, and Operations by The Northern Territory Native Police 1884 - 1891, Journal of NT History, No 7, 1996.

References

On the Native Police Corps of Victoria (1842-1853)

On the Native Police in South Australia (Northern Territory)(1884-1891)

On Queensland's Native Police Force (1848-1897):

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