Nanjing

Nanjing
南京市
Sub-provincial city


Location of Nanjing City jurisdiction in Jiangsu
Nanjing

Location in China

Coordinates: 32°03′N 118°46′E / 32.050°N 118.767°E / 32.050; 118.767Coordinates: 32°03′N 118°46′E / 32.050°N 118.767°E / 32.050; 118.767
Country  People's Republic of China
Province Jiangsu
County-level 11
Township-level 129
Settled unknown (Yecheng, 495 BC. Jinling City, 333 BC)
Government
 • Type Sub-provincial city
 • Party Secretary Wu Zhenglong
 • Mayor Miao Ruilin
Area
 • Total 6,598 km2 (2,548 sq mi)
Elevation 20 m (50 ft)
Population (2015)
 • Total 8,230,000
 • Density 1,237/km2 (3,183/sq mi)
Demonym(s) Nankinese[1]
Time zone China Standard (UTC+8)
Postal code 210000–211300
Area code(s) 25
GDP (Nominal) 2016
 - Total US$ 158.3 billion
 - Per capita US$ 19,537
 - Growth Increase 8.0%
GDP (PPP) 2016
 - Total US$ 290.1 billion
 - Per capita US$ 35,819
Licence plate prefixes 苏A
Website City of Nanjing
City trees
Deodar Cedar (Cedrus deodara),
Platanus × acerifolia[2]
City flowers
Méi (Prunus mume)
Nanjing

"Nanjing" in Chinese characters
Chinese 南京
Postal Nanking
Literal meaning "Southern Capital"

Nanjing ( listen), formerly romanized as Nanking and Nankin,[3] is a city situated in the heartland of the lower Yangtze River region in China, which has long been a major centre of culture, education, research, politics, economy, transport networks and tourism. It is the capital city of Jiangsu province of People's Republic of China and the second largest city in the east China region,[4] with acreage about 6600 square kilometers and a total population of 8,230,000.[5] The inner area of Nanjing enclosed by the city wall is Nanjing City (南京城), with acreage of 55 km2, while Nanjing Metropolitan Region includes surrounding cities and areas, with acreage over 60 thousand km2 and population over 30 million.

Nanjing has a prominent place in Chinese history and culture, having served as the capital of various Chinese dynasties, kingdoms and republican governments dating from the 3rd century CE to 1949.[6] The city has a number of other names, and some historical names are now used as names of districts of the city; among them there is the name Jiangning or Kiangning (江寧, literally "Yangtze's Peace"), whose former character Jiang (江, River) is the former part of the name Jiangsu and latter character Ning (寧, simplified form 宁, Peace) is the short name of Nanjing. When it was the capital of a state, for instance during the ROC, Jing (京) was adopted as the abbreviation of Nanjing. It first became a Chinese national capital as early as the Jin dynasty, and the name Nanjing was officially designated for the city during the Ming dynasty, about a thousand years later.[7] Nanjing is particularly known as Jinling or Ginling (金陵, literally "Gold Mausoleum") and the old name has been used since the Warring States period in the Zhou Dynasty.[8]

Located in Yangtze River Delta area and the center of east China, Nanjing is home to one of the world's largest inland ports. The city is also one of the fifteen sub-provincial cities in the People's Republic of China's administrative structure,[9] enjoying jurisdictional and economic autonomy only slightly less than that of a province.[10] Nanjing has been ranked seventh in the evaluation of "Cities with Strongest Comprehensive Strength" issued by the National Statistics Bureau, and second in the evaluation of cities with most sustainable development potential in the Yangtze River Delta. It has also been awarded the title of 2008 Habitat Scroll of Honour of China, Special UN Habitat Scroll of Honour Award and National Civilized City.[11] Nanjing boasts many high-quality universities and research institutes, with the number of universities listed in 100 National Key Universities ranking third, including Nanjing University and Southeast University.[12] The ratio of college students to total population ranks No.1 among large cities nationwide. Nanjing is one of the top three Chinese scientific research centers, especially in the chemical sciences, according to the Nature Index.[13]

Nanjing, one of the nation's most important cities for over a thousand years, is recognized as one of the Four Great Ancient Capitals of China. It has been one of the world's largest cities, enjoying peace and prosperity despite wars and disasters.[14][15][16][17] Nanjing served as the capital of Eastern Wu, one of the three major states in the Three Kingdoms period (211–280); the Eastern Jin and each of the Southern Dynasties (Liu Song, Southern Qi, Liang and Chen), which successively ruled southern China from 317–589; the Southern Tang, one of the Ten Kingdoms (937–76); the Ming dynasty when, for the first time, all of China was ruled from the city (1368–1421);[18] and the Republic of China (1927–37, 1945–49) prior to its flight to Taiwan during the Chinese Civil War.[19] The city also served as the seat of the rebel Taiping Heavenly Kingdom (1851–64) and the Japanese puppet regime of Wang Jingwei (1940–45) during the Second Sino-Japanese War. It suffered appalling atrocities in both conflicts, including the Nanjing Massacre.

Nanjing has served as the capital city of Jiangsu province since the establishment of the People's Republic of China. It boasts many important heritage sites, including the Presidential Palace and Sun Yat-sen Mausoleum. Nanjing is famous for human historical landscapes, mountains and waters such as Fuzimiao, Ming Palace, Chaotian Palace, Porcelain Tower, Drum Tower, Stone City, City Wall, Qinhuai River, Xuanwu Lake and Purple Mountain. Key cultural facilities include Nanjing Library, Nanjing Museum and Art Museum.

History

Early history

Archaeological discovery shows that "Nanjing Man" lived in more than 500 thousand years ago. Zun, a kind of wine vessel, was found to exist in Beiyinyangying culture of Nanjing in about 5000 years ago.[20] In the late period of Shang dynasty, Taibo of Zhou came to Jiangnan and established Wu state, and the first stop is in Nanjing area according to some historians based on discoveries in Taowu and Hushu culture.[21] According to a legend quoted by an artist in Ming dynasty, Chen Yi, Fuchai, King of the State of Wu, founded a fort named Yecheng in today's Nanjing area in 495 BCE.[22] Later in 473 BCE, the State of Yue conquered Wu and constructed the fort of Yuecheng (越城) on the outskirts of the present-day Zhonghua Gate. In 333 BCE, after eliminating the State of Yue, the State of Chu built Jinling Yi (金陵邑) in the western part of present-day Nanjing.[23] It was renamed Moling (秣陵) during reign of Qin Shi Huang. Since then, the city experienced destruction and renewal many times. The area was successively part of Kuaiji, Zhang and Danyang prefectures in Qin and Han dynasty, and part of Yangzhou region which was established as the nation's 13 supervisory and administrative regions in the 5th year of Yuanfeng in Han dynasty (106 BCE). Nanjing was later the capital city of Danyang Prefecture, and had been the capital city of Yangzhou for about 400 years from late Han to early Tang.

Imperial China

A bixie sculpture at Xiao Xiu's tomb (518 CE). Stone sculpture of the southern dynasties is widely considered as the city's icon.[24]

Nanjing first became a state capital in 229 CE, when the state of Eastern Wu founded by Sun Quan during the Three Kingdoms period relocated its capital to Jianye (建業), the city extended on the basis of Jinling Yi in 211 CE.[18] Although conquered by the Western Jin dynasty in 280, Nanjing and its neighbouring areas had been well cultivated and developed into one of the commercial, cultural and political centers of China during the rule of East Wu.[17] This city would soon play a vital role in the following centuries.

Shortly after the unification of the region, the Western Jin dynasty collapsed. First the rebellions by eight Jin princes for the throne and later rebellions and invasion from Xiongnu and other nomadic peoples that destroyed the rule of the Jin dynasty in the north. In 317, remnants of the Jin court, as well as nobles and wealthy families, fled from the north to the south and reestablished the Jin court in Nanjing, which was then called Jiankang (建康), replacing Luoyang.[25] It's the first time that the capital of the nation moved to southern part.

During the period of North–South division, Nanjing remained the capital of the Southern dynasties for more than two and a half centuries. During this time, Nanjing was the international hub of East Asia.[26] Based on historical documents, the city had 280,000 registered households.[27] Assuming an average Nanjing household consisted of about 5.1 people, the city had more than 1.4 million residents.[25]

A number of sculptural ensembles of that era, erected at the tombs of royals and other dignitaries, have survived (in various degrees of preservation) in Nanjing's northeastern and eastern suburbs, primarily in Qixia and Jiangning District.[28] Possibly the best preserved of them is the ensemble of the Tomb of Xiao Xiu (475–518), a brother of Emperor Wu of Liang.[29][30] The period of division ended when the Sui Dynasty reunified China and almost destroyed the entire city, turning it into a small town.

The Śarīra pagoda in Qixia Temple. It was built in 601 CE and rebuilt in the 10th century.

The city of Nanjing was razed after the Sui dynasty took over it.[31] It renamed Shengzhou (昇州) in Tang dynasty and resuscitated during the late Tang.[32] It was chosen as the capital and called Jinling (金陵) during the Southern Tang (937–976), a state that succeeded Wu state.[33] It renamed Jiangning (江寧) in Northern Song dynasty and renamed Jiankang in Southern Song dynasty. Jiankang's textile industry burgeoned and thrived during the Song dynasty despite the constant threat of foreign invasions from the north by the Jurchen-led Jin dynasty. The court of Da Chu, a short-lived puppet state established by the Jurchens, and the court of Song were once in the city.[34][35][36] Song was eventually exterminated by the Mongol empire under the name Yuan and in Yuan dynasty the city's status as a hub of the textile industry was further consolidated.[37]

Yuan dynasty map of Nanjing.
Zhonghua Gate is the south gate of the walled city of Nanjing. The city wall was built in the 14th century and is the longest in the world.

The first emperor of the Ming dynasty, Zhu Yuanzhang (the Hongwu Emperor), who overthrew the Yuan dynasty, renamed the city Yingtian, rebuilt it, and made it the dynastic capital in 1368. He constructed a 48 km (30 mi) long city wall around Yingtian, as well as a new Ming Palace complex, and government halls.[38] It took 200,000 laborers 21 years to finish the project. The present-day City Wall of Nanjing was mainly built during that time and today it remains in good condition and has been well preserved.[39] It is among the longest surviving city walls in China.[40] The Jianwen Emperor ruled from 1398 to 1402.

It is believed that Nanjing was the largest city in the world from 1358 to 1425 with a population of 487,000 in 1400.[41] In 1421, the Yongle Emperor persisted in relocating the capital to Beijing, however he had to withdrew his order before his death. Although Beijing was the de facto capital after that, Nanjing remained the official one of the Ming Empire until 1441, when Emperor Yingzong ordered to not to prefix the words "行在" ("provisional") on the Beijing Government seals any longer, while Nanjing's need to prefix "Nanjing" for distinguishing. Hence, Nanjing still had itself imperial government with extremely limit power before 1644.

Besides the city wall, other famous Ming-era structures in the city included the famous Ming Xiaoling Mausoleum and Porcelain Tower, although the latter was destroyed by the Taipings in the 19th century either in order to prevent a hostile faction from using it to observe and shell the city[42] or from superstitious fear of its geomantic properties.[43]

A monument to the huge human cost of some of the gigantic construction projects of the early Ming dynasty is the Yangshan Quarry (located some 15–20 km (9–12 mi) east of the walled city and Ming Xiaoling mausoleum), where a gigantic stele, cut on the orders of the Yongle Emperor, lies abandoned, just as it was left 600 years ago when it was understood it was impossible to move or complete it.[44]

As the center of the empire, early-Ming Nanjing had worldwide connections. It was home of the admiral Zheng He, who went to sail the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and it was visited by foreign dignitaries, such as a king from Borneo (Boni 渤泥), who died during his visit to China in 1408. The Tomb of the King of Boni, with a spirit way and a tortoise stele, was discovered in Yuhuatai District (south of the walled city) in 1958, and has been restored.[45]

Over two centuries after the removal of the capital to Beijing, Nanjing was destined to become the capital of a Ming emperor one more time. After the fall of Beijing to Li Zicheng's rebel forces and then to the Manchu-led Qing dynasty in the spring of 1644, the Ming prince Zhu Yousong was enthroned in Nanjing in June 1644 as the Hongguang Emperor.[46][47] His short reign was described by later historians as the first reign of the so-called Southern Ming dynasty.[48]

Zhu Yousong, however, fared a lot worse than his ancestor Zhu Yuanzhang three centuries earlier. Beset by factional conflicts, his regime could not offer effective resistance to Qing forces, when the Qing army, led by the Manchu prince Dodo approached Jiangnan the next spring.[49] Days after Yangzhou fell to the Manchus in late May 1645, the Hongguang Emperor fled Nanjing, and the imperial Ming Palace was looted by local residents.[50] On June 6, Dodo's troops approached Nanjing, and the commander of the city's garrison, Zhao the Earl of Xincheng, promptly surrendered the city to them.[51][52] The Manchus soon ordered all male residents of the city to shave their heads in the Manchu queue way.[53] They requisitioned a large section of the city for the bannermen's cantonment, and destroyed the former imperial Ming Palace, but otherwise the city was spared the mass murders and destruction that befell Yangzhou.[54]

An artist's impression of the Taiping Rebellion (1850–1864).

Under the Qing dynasty (1644–1911), the Nanjing area was known as Jiangning (江寧) and served as the seat of government for the Viceroy of Liangjiang.[55] It was the site of a Qing army garrison.[56] It had been visited by the Kangxi and Qianlong emperors a number of times on their tours of the southern provinces. Nanjing was invaded by British troops during the close of the First Opium War, which was ended by the Treaty of Nanjing in 1842. As the capital of the brief-lived rebel Taiping Heavenly Kingdom (founded by the Taiping rebels[57] in the mid-19th century, Nanjing was known as Tianjing (天京, "Heavenly Capital" or "Capital of Heaven").

Both the Qing viceroy and the Taiping king resided in buildings that would later be known as the Presidential Palace. When Qing forces led by Zeng Guofan retook the city in 1864, a massive slaughter occurred in the city with over 100,000 estimated to have committed suicide or fought to the death.[58] Since the Taiping Rebellion began, Qing forces allowed no rebels speaking its dialect to surrender.[59] This systematic mass murder of civilians occurred in Nanjing.[60]

Modern China

The Xinhai Revolution led to the founding of the Republic of China in January 1912 with Sun Yat-sen as the first provisional president and Nanking was selected as its new capital. However, the Qing Empire controlled large regions to the north, so revolutionaries asked Yuan Shikai to replace Sun as president in exchange for the abdication of Puyi, the Last Emperor. Yuan demanded the capital be Beijing (closer to his power base).

The headquarters of the National Government of the Republic of China in Nanjing, 1927

In 1927, the Kuomintang (KMT; Nationalist Party) under Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek again established Nanjing as the capital of the Republic of China, and this became internationally recognized once KMT forces took Beijing in 1928. The following decade is known as the Nanking decade.

In 1937, the Empire of Japan started a full-scale invasion of China after invading Manchuria in 1931, beginning the Second Sino-Japanese War (often considered a theatre of World War II).[61] Their troops occupied Nanjing in December and carried out the systematic and brutal Nanking Massacre (the "Rape of Nanking").[62] Even children, the elderly, and nuns are reported to have suffered at the hands of the Imperial Japanese Army.[63] The total death toll, including estimates made by the International Military Tribunal for the Far East and the Nanjing War Crimes Tribunal after the atomic bombings, was between 300,000 and 350,000.[64] The city itself was also severely damaged during the massacre.[62] The Nanjing Massacre Memorial Hall was built in 1985 to commemorate this event.

A few days before the fall of the city, the National Government of China was relocated to the southwestern city Chungking (Chongqing) and resumed Chinese resistance. In 1940, a Japanese-collaborationist government known as the "Nanjing Regime" or "Reorganized National Government of China" led by Wang Jingwei was established in Nanjing as a rival to Chiang Kai-shek's government in Chongqing.[65] In 1946, after the Surrender of Japan, the KMT relocated its central government back to Nanjing.

On 21 April 1949, Communist forces crossed the Yangtze River. On April 23, the Communist People's Liberation Army (PLA) captured Nanjing.[66] The KMT government retreated to Canton (Guangzhou) until October 15, Chongqing until November 25, and then Chengdu before retreating to the island of Taiwan on December 10 where Taipei was proclaimed the temporary capital of the Republic of China. By late 1949, the PLA was pursuing remnants of KMT forces southwards in southern China, and only Tibet and Hainan Island were left. After the establishment of the People's Republic of China in October 1949, Nanjing was initially a province-level municipality, but it was soon merged into Jiangsu province and again became the provincial capital by replacing Zhenjiang which was transferred in 1928, and retains that status to this day.

Geography

Nanjing Region - Lower Yangtze Basin and Eastern China.

Nanjing, with a total land area of 6,598 square kilometres (2,548 sq mi), is situated in the heartland of the drainage area of the lower reaches of the Yangtze River, and in the Yangtze River Delta, one of the largest economic zones of China. The Yangtze River flows past the west side and then the north side of Nanjing City, while the Ningzheng Ridge surrounds the north, east and south sides of the city. The city is 650 kilometres (400 mi) southeast of Luoyang, 1,200 kilometres (750 mi) south-southeast of Beijing, 300 kilometres (190 mi) west-northwest of Shanghai, and 1,400 kilometres (870 mi) east-northeast of Chongqing. The Yangtze River flows downstream from Jiujiang, Jiangxi, through Anhui and Jiangsu to the East China Sea. The northern part of the lower Yangtze drainage basin is the Huai River basin and the southern part is the Zhe River basin; they are connected by the Grand Canal east of Nanjing. The area around Nanjing is called Hsiajiang (下江, Downstream River) region, with Jianghuai dominant in the northern part and Jiangzhe dominant in the southern part.[67] The region is also well known as Dongnan (東南, South East, the Southeast) and Jiangnan (江南, and River South, South of Yangtze).[68]

Nanjing borders Yangzhou to the northeast (one town downstream when following the north bank of the Yangtze); Zhenjiang to the east (one town downstream when following the south bank of the Yangtze); and Changzhou to the southeast. On its western boundary is Anhui province, where Nanjing borders five prefecture-level cities: Chuzhou to the northwest, Wuhu, Chaohu and Maanshan to the west and Xuancheng to the southwest.[69]

Nanjing is at the intersection of the Yangtze River, an east-west water transport artery, and the Nanjing–Beijing railway, a north-south land transport artery, hence the name “door of the east and west, throat of the south and north”. Furthermore, the west part of the Ningzhen range is in Nanjing; the Loong-like Zhong Mountain curls round the east side of the city, while the tiger-like Stone Mountain crouches in the west of the city, hence the name “the Zhong Mountain, a dragon curling, and the Stone Mountain, a tiger crouching”.

Climate and environment

Nanjing
Climate chart (explanation)
JFMAMJJASOND
 
 
37
 
 
7
−1
 
 
47
 
 
9
1
 
 
82
 
 
13
5
 
 
73
 
 
20
11
 
 
102
 
 
26
16
 
 
193
 
 
29
21
 
 
186
 
 
32
25
 
 
129
 
 
32
24
 
 
72
 
 
27
19
 
 
65
 
 
22
13
 
 
51
 
 
16
6
 
 
24
 
 
10
0
Average max. and min. temperatures in °C
Precipitation totals in mm
Source: CMA[70]
Autumn maple leaves in Qixia Mountain Temple.

Nanjing has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen Cfa) and is under the influence of the East Asian monsoon. The four seasons are distinct, with damp conditions seen throughout the year, very hot and muggy summers, cold, damp winters, and in between, spring and autumn are of reasonable length. Along with Chongqing and Wuhan, Nanjing is traditionally referred to as one of the "Three Furnacelike Cities" along the Yangtze River (长江流域三大火炉) for the perennially high temperatures in the summertime.[71] However, the time from mid-June to the end of July is the plum blossom blooming season in which the meiyu (rainy season of East Asia; literally "plum rain") occurs, during which the city experiences a period of mild rain as well as dampness. Typhoons are uncommon but possible in the late stages of summer and early part of autumn. The annual mean temperature is around 15.91 °C (60.6 °F), with the monthly 24-hour average temperature ranging from 2.7 °C (36.9 °F) in January to 28.1 °C (82.6 °F) in July. Extremes since 1951 have ranged from −14.0 °C (7 °F) on 6 January 1955 to 40.7 °C (105 °F) on 22 August 1959.[72][73][74] On average precipitation falls 115 days out of the year, and the average annual rainfall is 1,090 millimetres (43 in). With monthly percent possible sunshine ranging from 37 percent in March to 52 percent in August, the city receives 1,926 hours of bright sunshine annually.

Nanjing is endowed with rich natural resources, which include more than 40 kinds of minerals. Among them, iron and sulfur reserves make up 40 percent of those of Jiangsu province. Its reserves of strontium rank first in East Asia and the South East Asia region. Nanjing also possesses abundant water resources, both from the Yangtze River and groundwater. In addition, it has several natural hot springs such as Tangshan Hot Spring in Jiangning and Tangquan Hot Spring in Pukou.

Sun Yat-sen once summarized and lauded the feature of Nanjing in his book The International Development of China (建國方略):

Nanking was the old capital of China before Peking, and is situated in a fine locality which comprises high mountains, deep water and a vast level plain—a rare site to be found in any part of the world. It also lies at the center of a very rich country on both sides of the lower Yangtze. (南京為中國古都，在北京之前，而其位置乃在一美善之地區。其地有高山，有深水，有平原，此三種天工，鐘毓一處，在世界中之大都市誠難覓如此佳境也。而又恰居長江下游兩岸最豐富區域之中心...)[75]

To be more exact, surrounded by the Yangtze River and mountains, the urban area of the city enjoys its scenic natural environment. Xuanwu Lake and Mochou Lake are located in the centre of the city and are easily accessible to the public, while Purple Mountain are covered with deciduous and coniferous forests preserving various historical and cultural sites. Meanwhile, a Yangtze River deep-water channel is constructing to enable Nanjing to be capable of navigation of the 50,000 DWT vessels form the estuary.[76]

Cityscape

Nanjing skyline, taken in 2012.

Environmental issues

Air pollution in 2013

7 December 2013 image from NASA's Terra Satellite of the Eastern China smog

A dense wave of smog began in the central and east parts of China on 2 December 2013 across a distance of around 1,200 kilometres (750 mi),[77] including Tianjin, Hebei, Shandong, Jiangsu, Anhui, Shanghai and Zhejiang. A lack of cold air flow, combined with slow-moving air masses carrying industrial emissions, collected airborne pollutants to form a thick layer of smog over the region.[78] The heavy smog heavily polluted central and southern Jiangsu Province, especially in and around Nanjing,[79] with its AQI pollution Index at "severely polluted" for five straight days and "heavily polluted" for nine.[80] On 3 December 2013, levels of PM2.5 particulate matter average over 943 micrograms per cubic metre,[81] falling to over 338 micrograms per cubic metre on 4 December 2013.[82] Between 3:00 pm, 3 December and 2:00pm, 4 December local time, several expressways from Nanjing to other Jiangsu cities were closed, stranding dozens of passenger buses in Zhongyangmen bus station.[79] From 5 to 6 December, Nanjing issued a red alert for air pollution and closed down all kindergarten through middle schools. Children's Hospital outpatient services increased by 33 percent; general incidence of bronchitis, pneumonia, upper respiratory tract infections significantly increased.[83] The smog dissipated 12 December.[84] Officials blamed the dense pollution on lack of wind, automobile exhaust emissions under low air pressure, and coal-powered district heating system in north China.[85] Prevailing winds blew low-hanging air masses of factory emissions (mostly SO2) towards China's east coast.[86]

Government

People's Government of Nanjing City

At present, the full name of the government of Nanjing is "People's Government of Nanjing City" and the city is under the one-party rule of the CPC, with the CPC Nanjing Committee Secretary as the de facto governor of the city and the mayor as the executive head of the government working under the secretary.

Administrative divisions

The sub-provincial city of Nanjing is divided into 11 districts.[87]

Map District Simplified Chinese Hanyu Pinyin Population (2013) Area (km2)
District
Xuanwu 玄武区 Xuánwǔ Qū 660,557 80.97
Qinhuai 秦淮区 Qínhuái Qū 1,034,822 50.36
Jianye 建邺区 Jiànyè Qū 446,899 82.00
Gulou 鼓楼区 Gǔlóu Qū 1,292,291 57.62
Yuhuatai 雨花台区 Yǔhuātái Qū 415,885 131.90
Qixia 栖霞区 Qīxiá Qū 664,103 340.00
Jiangning 江宁区 Jiāngníng Qū 1,178,628 1,573.00
Pukou 浦口区 Pǔkǒu Qū 728,798 913.00
Luhe 六合区 Lùhé Qū 926,445 1,485.50
Lishui 溧水区 Lìshuǐ Qū 419,523 983.00
Gaochun 高淳区 Gāochún Qū 420,429 801.00

Demographics

Population trend[88]
Year Residents (in million) natural growth rate (%)
1949 2.5670 13.09
1950 2.5670 15.64
1955 2.8034 19.94
1960 3.2259 0.23
1965 3.4529 25.58
1970 3.6053 20.76
1975 3.9299 9.53
1978 4.1238 8.84
1990 5.0182 9.18
Year Residents (in million) natural growth rate (%)
1995 5.2172 2.62
1996 5.2543 2.63
1997 5.2982 2.16
1998 5.3231 1.00
1999 5.3744 2.01
2000 5.4489 2.48
2001 5.5304 1.60
2002 5.6328 0.70
2003 5.7223 1.50
2006 6.0700 6.11

According to the Sixth China Census, the total population of the City of Nanjing reached 8.005 million in 2010. The statistics in 2011 estimated the total population to be 8.11 million. The birth rate was 8.86 percent and the death rate was 6.88 percent. The urban area had a population of 6.47 million people. The sex ratio of the city population was 107.31 males to 100 females.[89][90]

As in most of eastern China the ethnic makeup of Nanjing is predominantly Han nationality (98.56 percent), with 50 other minority nationalities. In 1999, 77,394 residents belonged to minority nationalities, among which the vast majority (64,832) were Hui nationalities, contributing 83.76 percent to the minority population. The second and third largest minority groups were Manchu (2,311) and Zhuang (533) nationalities. Most of the minority nationalities resided in Jianye District, comprising 9.13 percent of the district's population.[91]

Economy

Earlier development

There was a massive cultivating in the area of Nanjing from the Three Kingdoms period to Southern dynasties. The sparse population led to land as royal rewards were granted for rules’ people. At first, the landless peasants benefited from it, then the senior officials and aristocratic families. Since large numbers of immigrants flooded into the area, reclamation was quite common in its remote parts, which promoted its agricultural development.

The craft industries, by contrast, had a faster growth. Especially the textiles section, there were about 200,000 craftsmen by the late Qing.[92] Several dynasties established their imperial textiles bureaus in Nanjing. The Nanjing Brocade (南京云锦) is their exquisite product as the cloth for the royal garments such as dragon robes. Meanwhile, the satins from Nanjing were called “tribute satins” ("贡缎"), because they were usually paid as tribute to the monarchy. Besides, minting, papermaking, shipbuilding grew initially since the Three Kingdoms period. As Nanjing was the capital of the Ming dynasty, the industries further expanded, where both state-owned and numerous private businesses served the imperial court. Several place names in Nanjing remains witnessed them, such as Wangjinshi (网巾市, the market sells wangjin), Guyilang (估衣廊, the corridor for garments bargain), Youfangqiao (油坊桥, the bridge near an oil mill).

Moreover, the trade in Nanjing was also flourishing. The Ming dynasty drawing Nandu fanhui tujuan (南都繁会图卷, Prosperous Nanjing) vividly depicts a high street at that time bustling with people; all sorts of shops could be found on it. However, the economic developments were almost wiped out by the Taiping Rebellion’s catastrophe.

Modern times

Into the first half of the twentieth century after the establishment of ROC, Nanjing gradually shifted from being a production hub towards being a heavy consumption city, mainly because of the rapid expansion of its wealthy population after Nanjing once again regained the political spotlight of China. A number of huge department stores such as Zhongyang Shangchang sprouted up, attracting merchants from all over China to sell their products in Nanjing. In 1933, the revenue generated by the food and entertainment industry in the city exceeded the sum of the output of the manufacturing and agriculture industry. One third of the city population worked in the service industry, .

In the 1950s after PRC was established by CPC, the government invested heavily in the city to build a series of state-owned heavy industries, as part of the national plan of rapid industrialization, converting it into a heavy industry production center of east China.[93] Overenthusiastic in building a “world-class” industrial city, the government also made many disastrous mistakes during development, such as spending hundreds of millions of yuan to mine for non-existent coal, resulting in negative economic growth in the late 1960s. From 1960s to 1980s there were Five Pillar Industries, namely, electronics, cars, petrochemical, iron and steel, and power, each with big state-owned firms. After the Reform and Opening recovering market economy, the state-owned enterprises found themselves incapable of competing with efficient multinational firms and local private firms, hence were either mired in heavy debt or forced into bankruptcy or privatization and this resulted in large numbers of layoff workers who were technically not unemployed but effectively jobless.

Today

Skyline of Nanjing's Xinjiekou district as seen from Nanjing University's Gulou campus.

The current economy of the city is basically newly developed based on the past. Service industries are dominating, accounting for about 60 percent of the GDP of the city, and financial industry, culture industry and tourism industry are top 3 of them. Industries of information technology, energy saving and environmental protection, new energy, smart power grid and intelligent equipment manufacturing have become pillar industries.[94] Big civilian-run enterprise include Suning Commerce, Yurun, Sanpower, Fuzhong, Hiteker, 5stars, Jinpu, Tiandi, CTTQ Pharmaceutical, Nanjing Iron and Steel Company and Simcere Pharmaceutical. Big state-owned firms include Panda Electronics, Yangzi Petrochemical, Jinling Petrochemical, Nanjing Chemical, Jincheng Motors, Jinling Pharmaceutical, Chenguang and NARI. The city has also attracted foreign investment, multinational firms such as Siemens, Ericsson, Volkswagen, Iveco, A.O. Smith, and Sharp have established their lines, and a number of multinationals such as Ford, IBM, Lucent, Samsung and SAP established research center there. Many China-based leading firms such as Huawei, ZTE and Lenovo have key R & D institutes in the city. Nanjing is an industrial technology research and development hub, hosting many R & D centers and institutions, especially in areas of electronics technology, information technology, computer software, biotechnology and pharmaceutical technology and new material technology.

In recent years, Nanjing has been developing its economy, commerce, industry, as well as city construction. In 2013 the city's GDP was RMB 801 billion (3rd in Jiangsu), and GDP per capita(current price) was RMB 98,174(US$16041), a 11 percent increase from 2012. The average urban resident's disposable income was RMB 36,200, while the average rural resident's net income was RMB 14,513. The registered urban unemployment rate was 3.02 percent, lower than the national average (4.3 percent). Nanjing's Gross Domestic Product ranked 12th in 2013 in China, and its overall competence ranked 6th in mainland and 8th including Taiwan and Hong Kong in 2009.[95]

A panoramic view of Nanjing in 2005
Industrial zones

There are a number of industrial zones in Nanjing.

Transportation

Nanjing is the transportation hub in eastern China and the downstream Yangtze River area. Different means of transportation constitute a three-dimensional transport system that includes land, water and air. As in most other Chinese cities, public transportation is the dominant mode of travel of the majority of the citizens. As of October 2014, Nanjing had four bridges and two tunnels over the Yangtze River, which are tying districts north of the river with the city center on the south bank.[96]

Rail

Nanjing South Railway Station

Nanjing is an important railway hub in eastern China.[97] It serves as rail junction for the Beijing-Shanghai (Jinghu) (which is itself composed of the old Jinpu and Huning Railways), Nanjing–Tongling Railway (Ningtong), Nanjing–Qidong (Ningqi), and the Nanjing-Xian (Ningxi) which encompasses the Hefei–Nanjing Railway. Nanjing is connected to the national high-speed railway network by Beijing–Shanghai High-Speed Railway and Shanghai–Wuhan–Chengdu Passenger Dedicated Line, with several more high-speed rail lines under construction.

Among all 17 railway stations in Nanjing, passenger rail service is mainly provided by Nanjing Railway Station and Nanjing South Railway Station, while other stations like Nanjing West Railway Station, Zhonghuamen Railway Station and Xianlin Railway Station serve minor roles. Nanjing Railway Station was first built in 1968.[98] On November 12, 1999, the station was burnt in a serious fire.[99] Reconstruction of the station was finished on September 1, 2005. Nanjing South Railway Station, which is one of the 5 hub stations on Beijing–Shanghai High-Speed Railway, has officially been claimed as the largest railway station in Asia and the second largest in the world in terms of GFA (Gross Floor Area).[100] Construction of Nanjing South Station began on 10 January 2008.[101] The station was opened for public service in 2011.[102]

Road

Nanjing Yangtze River Bridge, built in 1968,[98] the first bridge over the Yangtze River to be built without foreign assistance.

As an important regional hub in the Yangtze River Delta, Nanjing is well-connected by over 60 state and provincial highways to all parts of China.

Express highways such as Hu–Ning, Ning–He, Ning–Hang enable commuters to travel to Shanghai, Hefei, Hangzhou, and other important cities quickly and conveniently. Inside the city of Nanjing, there are 230 km (140 mi) of highways, with a highway coverage density of 3.38 kilometres per hundred square kilometrs (5.44 mi/100 sq mi). The total road coverage density of the city is 112.56 kilometres per hundred square kilometres (181.15 mi/100 sq mi).[103] The two artery roads in Nanjing are Zhongshan Road and Hanzhong. The two roads cross in the city center, Xinjiekou.

Expressways:

National Highway (GXXX):

Public transportation

Xinjiekou Station of Line 2, Nanjing Metro

The city also boasts an efficient network of public transportation, which mainly consists of bus, taxi and metro systems. The bus network, which is currently run by three companies since 2011, provides more than 370 routes covering all parts of the city and suburban areas.[104] Nanjing Metro Line 1, started service on September 3, 2005, with 16 stations and a length of 21.72 kilometres (13.50 miles).[105] Line 2 and the 24.5 km-long south extension of Line 1 officially opened to passenger service on May 28, 2010.[106][107] At present, Nanjing has a metro system with a grand total of 256 kilometers (159 mi) of route and 136 stations. They are Line 1, Line 2, Line 3, Line 4, Line 10, Line S1 and Line S8. The city is planning to complete a 17-line Metro and light-rail system by 2030.[108] The expansion of the Metro network will greatly facilitate the intracity transportation and reduce the currently heavy traffic congestion.

Air

Nanjing's airport, Lukou International Airport, serves both national and international flights. In 2013, Nanjing airport handled 15,011,792 passengers and 255,788.6 tonnes of freight.[109] The airport currently has 85 routes to national and international destinations, which include Japan,[110] Korea, Thailand,[111][112] Malaysia, Singapore, United States[113] and Germany. The airport is connected by a 29-kilometre (18 mi) highway directly to the city center, and is also linked to various intercity highways, making it accessible to the passengers from the surrounding cities. A railway Ninggao Intercity Line has been built to link the airport with Nanjing South Railway Station.[114] Lukou Airport was opened on 28 June 1997, replacing Nanjing Dajiaochang Airport as the main airport serving Nanjing. Dajiaochang Airport is still used as a military air base.[115]

Water

Port of Nanjing is the largest inland port in China, with annual cargo tonnage reached 191,970,000 t in 2012.[116] The port area is 98 kilometres (61 mi) in length and has 64 berths including 16 berths for ships with a tonnage of more than 10,000.[117] Nanjing is also the biggest container port along the Yangtze River; in March 2004, the one million container-capacity base, Longtan Containers Port Area opened, further consolidating Nanjing as the leading port in the region. As of 2010, it operated six public ports and three industrial ports.[118] The Yangtze River’s 12.5-meter-deep waterway enables 50,000-ton-class ocean ships directly arrive at the Nanjing Port, and the ocean ships with the capacities of 100,000 tons or above can also reach the port after load reduction in the Yangtze River’s high-tide period.[119]

Yangtze River crossings

In the 1960s, the first Nanjing Yangtze River Bridge was completed, and served as the only bridge crossing over the Lower Yangtze in eastern China at that time. The bridge was a source of pride and an important symbol of modern China, having been built and designed by the Chinese themselves following failed surveys by other nations and the reliance on and then rejection of Soviet expertise. Begun in 1960 and opened to traffic in 1968, the bridge is a two-tiered road and rail design spanning 4,600 metres on the upper deck, with approximately 1,580 metres spanning the river itself. Since then four more bridges and two tunnels have been built. Going in the downstream direction, the Yangtze crossings in Nanjing are: Dashengguan Bridge, Line 10 Metro Tunnel, Third Bridge, Nanjing Yangtze River Tunnel, First Bridge, Second Bridge and Fourth Bridge.

Culture and art

Nanjing Library

Being one of the four ancient capitals of China, Nanjing has always been a cultural center attracting intellectuals from all over the country. In the Tang and Song dynasties, Nanjing was a place where poets gathered and composed poems reminiscent of its luxurious past; during the Ming and Qing dynasties, the city was the official imperial examination center (Jiangnan Examination Hall) for the Jiangnan region, again acting as a hub where different thoughts and opinions converged and thrived.

Today, with a long cultural tradition and strong support from local educational institutions, Nanjing is commonly viewed as a “city of culture” and one of the more pleasant cities to live in China.

Art

Some of the leading art groups of China are based in Nanjing; they include the Qianxian Dance Company, Nanjing Dance Company, Jiangsu Peking Opera Institute and Nanjing Xiaohonghua Art Company among others.

Jiangsu Province Kun Opera is one of the best theatres for Kunqu, China's oldest stage art.[120] It is considered a conservative and traditional troupe. Nanjing also has professional opera troupes for the Yang, Yue (shaoxing), Xi and Jing (Chinese opera varieties) as well as Suzhou pingtan, spoken theatre and puppet theatre.

Jiangsu Art Gallery is the largest gallery in Jiangsu Province, presenting some of the best traditional and contemporary art pieces of China;[121] many other smaller-scale galleries, such as Red Chamber Art Garden and Jinling Stone Gallery, also have their own special exhibitions.

Festivals

An elderly man sketches plum blossoms at the festival.

Many traditional festivals and customs were observed in the old times, which included climbing the City Wall on January 16, bathing in Qing Xi on March 3, hill hiking on September 9 and others (the dates are in Chinese lunar calendar). Almost none of them, however, are still celebrated by modern Nanjingese.

Instead, Nanjing, as a popular tourist destination, hosts a series of government-organised events throughout the year. The annual International Plum Blossom Festival held in Plum Blossom Hill, the largest plum collection in China, attracts thousands of tourists both domestically and internationally. Other events include Nanjing Baima Peach Blossom and Kite Festival, Jiangxin Zhou Fruit Festival and Linggu Temple Sweet Osmanthus Festival.

Libraries

Nanjing Library, founded in 1907, houses more than 10 million volumes of printed materials and is the third largest library in China, after the National Library in Beijing and Shanghai Library. Other libraries, such as city-owned Jinling Library and various district libraries, also provide considerable amount of information to citizens. Nanjing University Library is the second largest university libraries in China after Peking University Library, and the fifth largest nationwide, especially in the number of precious collections.

Museums

Nanjing Museum

Nanjing has some of the oldest and finest museums in China. Nanjing Museum, formerly known as National Central Museum during ROC period, is the first modern museum and remains as one of the leading museums in China having 400,000 items in its permanent collection,.[122] The museum is notable for enormous collections of Ming and Qing imperial porcelain, which is among the largest in the world.[123] Other museums include the City Museum of Nanjing in the Chaotian Palace, the Oriental Metropolitan Museum,[124] the China Modern History Museum in the Presidential Palace, the Nanjing Massacre Memorial Hall, the Taiping Kingdom History Museum, Jiangning Imperial Silk Manufacturing Museum,[125] Nanjing Yunjin Museum, Nanjing City Wall Cultural Museum, Nanjing Customs Museum in Ganxi House,[126] Nanjing Astronomical History Museum, Nanjing Paleontological Museum, Nanjing Geological Museum, Nanjing Riverstones Museum, and other museums and memorials such Zheng He Memorial,[127] Jinling Four Modern Calligraphers Memorial.[128]

Theatre

Most of Nanjing's major theatres are multi-purpose, used as convention halls, cinemas, musical halls and theatres on different occasions. The major theatres include the People's Convention Hall and the Nanjing Arts and Culture Center. The Capital Theatre well known in the past is now a museum in theatre/film.

Night life

Qinhuai River

Traditionally Nanjing's nightlife was mostly centered around Nanjing Fuzimiao (Confucius Temple) area along the Qinhuai River, where night markets, restaurants and pubs thrived.[129] Boating at night in the river was a main attraction of the city. Thus, one can see the statues of the famous teachers and educators of the past not too far from those of the courtesans who educated the young men in the other arts.

In the past 20 years, several commercial streets have been developed, hence the nightlife has become more diverse: there are shopping malls opening late in the Xinjiekou CBD and Hunan Road. The well-established "Nanjing 1912" district hosts a wide variety of recreational facilities ranging from traditional restaurants and western pubs to dance clubs. There are two major areas where bars are densely located; one is in 1912 block; the other is along Shanghai road and its neighbourhood. Both are popular with international residents of the city.

Local people still very much enjoy street food, such as Turkish Kebab. As elsewhere in Asia, Karaoke is popular with both young and old crowds.

Food and symbolism

Many of the city's local favorite dishes are based on ducks, including Nanjing salted duck, duck blood and vermicelli soup, and duck oil pancake.[130]

The radish is also a typical food representing people of Nanjing, which has been spread through word of mouth as an interesting fact for many years in China. According to Nanjing.GOV.cn, "There is a long history of growing radish in Nanjing especially the southern suburb. In the spring, the radish tastes very juicy and sweet. It is well-known that people in Nanjing like eating radish. And the people are even addressed as 'Nanjing big radish', which means they are unsophisticated, passionate and conservative. From health perspective, eating radish can help to offset the stodgy food that people take during the Spring Festival".[131]

Sports and stadiums

Nanjing Olympic Sports Centre

Nanjing's planned 20,000 seat Youth Olympic Sports Park Gymnasium will be one of the venues for the 2019 FIBA Basketball World Cup.[132]

As a major Chinese city, Nanjing is home to many professional sports teams. Jiangsu Suning F.C., the football club currently staying in Chinese Super League, is a long-term tenant of Nanjing Olympic Sports Centre.[133] Jiangsu Nangang Basketball Club is a competitive team which has long been one of the major clubs fighting for the title in China top level league, CBA. Jiangsu Volleyball men and women teams are also traditionally considered as at top level in China volleyball league.

There are two major sports centers in Nanjing, Wutaishan Sports Center and Nanjing Olympic Sports Centre. Both of these two are comprehensive sports centers, including stadium, gymnasium, natatorium, tennis court, etc. Wutaishan Sports Center was established in 1952 and it was one of the oldest and most advanced stadiums in early time of People's Republic of China.

Nanjing hosted the 10th National Games of P.R.C. in 2005 and hosted the 2nd summer Youth Olympic Games in 2014.[134][135]

In 2005, in order to host The 10th National Game of People's Republic of China, there was a new stadium, Nanjing Olympic Sports Centre, constructed in Nanjing. Compared to Wutaishan Sports Center, which the major stadium's capacity is 18,500,[136] Nanjing Olympic Sports Center has a more advanced stadium which is big enough to seat 60,000 spectators. Its gymnasium has capacity of 13,000, and natatorium of capacity 3,000.

On 10 February 2010, the 122nd IOC session at Vancouver announced Nanjing as the host city for the 2nd Summer Youth Olympic Games. The slogan of the 2014 Youth Olympic Games was “Share the Games, Share our Dreams”. The Nanjing 2014 Youth Olympic Games featured all 28 sports on the Olympic programme and were held from 16 to 28 August. The Nanjing Youth Olympic Games Organising Committee (NYOGOC) worked together with the International Olympic Committee (IOC) to attract the best young athletes from around the world to compete at the highest level. Off the competition fields, an integrated culture and education programme focused on discussions about education, Olympic values, social challenges, and cultural diversity. The YOG aims to spread the Olympic spirit and encourage sports participation.

Tourism

Nanjing is one of the most beautiful cities of mainland China with lush green parks, natural scenic lakes, small mountains, historical buildings and monuments, relics and much more, which attracts thousands of tourists every year.

Buildings and monuments

Imperial period

Republic of China period

Because it was designated as the national capital, many structures were built around that time. Even today, some of them still remain which are open to tourists.

People's Republic of China period

Parks and gardens

Other places of interest

Education

Nanjing has been the educational center in southern China for more than 1700 years. There are 75 institutions of higher learning till 2013. The number of National key laboratories, National key disciplines and the academicians of Chinese Academy of Sciences and Chinese Academy of Engineering all rank third in the nation. It boasts some of the most prominent educational institutions in the region, some of which are listed as follows:

Nanjing University
Many universities in Nanjing have satellite campuses or
have moved their main campus to Xianlin University City.
Clockwise from top:
  • Gate to Nanjing Normal
  • Nanjing University of Finance
  • Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine
  • Nanjing University of Posts and Telecommunications
  • Nanjing Normal University

Universities and colleges

National universities and colleges

Operated by Ministry of Education

Operated by Ministry of Industry and Information Technology

Operated by the joint Commission of the State Forest Administration and Public Order Ministry

Operated by the general sport Administration

National military universities and colleges
Provincial universities and colleges
Private universities and colleges

Notable high schools


Sister cities


Former Sister cities

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ Nankinese, sometimes may be translated as Nanjinese, Nanjingese, Nankingese, Nanjinger, Nankiner, etc.. In Nanjing dialect there is no difference between Nanjing and Nanjin or between Nanking and Nankin. This means the two pronunciations Jing and Jin in Mandarin Chinese pronounce the same in Nanjing dialect, and king and kin are also the same.
  2. ↑ "A Grass Roots Fight to Save a 'Super Tree'". The New York Times. Retrieved 2013-12-10.
  3. ↑ "Romanisation of the Chinese Language". Society for Anglo-Chinese Understanding. Retrieved 2014-07-12.
  4. ↑ In East China, in terms of urban population and urban area, the largest city is Shanghai, and the second largest is Nanjing.
  5. ↑ "南京市2015年1%人口抽样调查数据出炉 常住人口823万". gov.longhoo.net. Retrieved 2016-10-19.
  6. ↑ "南京历史沿革". 中国南京政府官网.
  7. ↑ Since becoming a southern capital, the city has been called Nanking (Nanjing, 南京) unofficially, and was officially named Nanjing (Nanking) after Peking (Beijing 北京, renamed from Peping or Beiping, 北平) became a capital city during the early Ming dynasty; the name appears in Ming Dynasty echo poem (蕭子顯 《奉和昭明太子鐘山講解詩》：“崇嶽基舊宇，盤嶺跨南京”), for example. It's also unofficially called Nandu (南都), and Nandu Fanhui Tu (《南都繁會圖》, Nandu Prosperity Picture) is an example.
  8. ↑ Nanjing is also called Jincheng (金城, Gold City), derived from Jinling City. In addition, Jincheng was a city in Nanjing area. In the 1st year of Hsiankang in the Jin dynasty (335 CE), Langya (瑯琊), a prefectural governor Huan Wen stationed in Jincheng, submitted a proposal to establish the prefecture of South Langya in the land of Jiangsheng (江乘) county, and then the city Jincheng became the capital city of the newly established South Langya Prefecture (南瑯琊郡). The Jincheng later renamed Jinling township, in today's Qinhuai District. (《至大金陵新志》：“金城在城东二十五里，吴筑，今上元县金陵乡地名金城戍即其地。” 《至正金陵新志》：“上元縣金陵鄉，舊名金城戍。晉太元八年，謝安勞師于金城，即此。或稱琅邪城。咸康初，桓溫為琅邪內史，鎮金城。”)
  9. ↑ 薛宏莉 (2008-05-07). "15个副省级城市中 哈尔滨市房价涨幅排列第五名" [Prices rose in 15 sub-provincial cities, Harbin ranked fifth]. 哈尔滨地产 (in Chinese). Sohu. Retrieved 2008-06-11.
  10. ↑ "中央机构编制委员会印发《关于副省级市若干问题的意见》的通知. 中编发[1995]5号". 豆丁网. 1995-02-19. Retrieved 2014-05-28.
  11. ↑ "Home - Women GP - Nanjing". Nanjing2009.fide.com. Retrieved 2013-03-26.
  12. ↑ 100 National Key Universities are universities of Project 211 whose name comes from the abbreviation of 100 national key universities in 21st century. There are 8 universities listed in Project 211 in Nanjing, 9 in Shanghai, and 23 in Beijing.
  13. ↑ "It will come as no surprise that the top performing Chinese cities in the Nature Index are Beijing, Shanghai and Nanjing. All three are significant players economically and politically, Beijing and Shanghai particularly. ... As the capital of the wealthy eastern coastal province of Jiangsu, Nanjing is located in a region rich in economic and technological activity. ..." - from "Three giants tighten their grip", Nature 528, S176–S178 (17 December 2015)
  14. ↑ "走马南京都市圈". 中国经济快讯周刊/人民网. 2003.
  15. ↑ "南京介绍". 新华网. 2012-10-09.
  16. ↑ "江苏省行政区划介绍". 江苏省政府官网.
  17. 1 2 Rita Yi Man Li, "A Study on the Impact of Culture, Economic, History and Legal Systems Which Affect the Provisions of Fittings by Residential Developers in Boston, Hong Kong and Nanjing", Global Business and Management Research: An International Journal. 1:3-4. 2009. Access via Questia, an online subscription service.
  18. 1 2 Crespigny 2004, 3
  19. ↑ "南京市". 重編囯語辭典修訂本. Ministry of Education, ROC. 民國十六年，國民政府宣言定為首都，今以臺北市為我國中央政府所在地。(In the 16th Year of the Republic of China [1927], the National Government established [Nanking] as the capital. At present, Taipei is the seat of the central government.)
  20. ↑
  21. ↑
  22. ↑ (金陵在春秋時本吳地，未有城邑。惟石頭城東有冶城。傳雲，夫差冶鑄於此。即今朝天宮地。) 金陵古今圖考 (Illustrated Study of Past and Present Nanjing)
  23. ↑ Here in Yecheng, Yuecheng and Jinling Yi, both Cheng and Yi mean city.
  24. ↑ 南京六朝石刻现状调查：在田野与工地间寻找国宝 (in Chinese). Xinhua. 7 June 2006. Retrieved 2 November 2013.
  25. 1 2 Shufen Liu, "Jiankang and the Commercial Empire of the Southern Dynasties", in Pearce, Spiro, Ebrey eds. Culture and Power, 2001:35.
  26. ↑ "六朝名都崛起江东". 南京市志（第1册）.
  27. ↑ 《金陵记》：“梁都之时，城中二十八万户，西至石头，东至倪塘，南至石子冈，北过蒋山，东西南北各四十里。” (in Chinese)
  28. ↑ Liang Baiquan. Nanjing-de Liu Chao Shike (Nanjing's Six Dynasties' Sculptures). pp. 53–54. ISBN 7-80614-376-9
  29. ↑ Albert E. Dien, Six Dynasties Civilization. Yale University Press, 2007, ISBN 0-300-07404-2. Partial text on Google Books. P. 190. A reconstruction of the original form of the ensemble is shown in Fig. 5.19.
  30. ↑ "梁安成康王萧秀墓石刻". Jllib.org.cn. Retrieved 2013-12-10.
  31. ↑ The city was seriously destroyed in chaos caused by wars and changes of dynasties. In the 5th year of Daye in Sui (609 CE), the city again became capital city of Danyang Prefecture. In the 14th year of Daye reign Emperor Yang of Sui ordered to build palace in Nanjing, attempted to make the city as capital to keep Sui dynasty and failed.
  32. ↑ "南唐再兴金陵城". 南京市志（第1册）.
  33. ↑ Johannes L. Kurz (2011). China's Southern Tang Dynasty, 937-976. Routledge.
  34. ↑ Franke, Herbert (1994). "The Chin dynasty". In Denis Twitchett, Denis C.; John King Fairbank. The Cambridge History of China: Volume 6, Alien Regimes and Border States, 710–1368. Cambridge University Press. p. 230. ISBN 978-0-521-24331-5.
  35. ↑ Tao, Jing-Shen (2009). "The Move to the South and the Reign of Kao-tsung". In Paul Jakov Smith; Denis C. Twitchett. The Cambridge History of China: Volume 5, The Sung Dynasty and Its Precursors, 907-1279. Cambridge University Press. p. 647. ISBN 978-0-521-81248-1.
  36. ↑ In the 3rd year of Jianyan (1129), Jiankang became Temporary Capital (行都) of Song, being set as Eastern Capital. Although people like Yue Fei stood for the imperial court being in the city, eventually in the 8th year of Shaoxing (1139) it withdrew from Jiankang to Lin'an (present Hangzhou), and since then the city became Preserving Capital (留都) of Song dynasty.
  37. ↑ "隋唐州县南唐国都". 南京市志（第1册）.
  38. ↑ Ebrey (1999), 191.
  39. ↑ Turnbull, Stephen R. and Steve Noon (2009). Chinese Walled Cities 221 BC-AD 1644. Osprey Publishing. p. 61. ISBN 1-84603-381-0.
  40. ↑ Ansight Guides (1997). Insight Guides: China 5/E. Apa Publications, original from Pennsylvania State University. p. 268. ISBN 0-395-66287-7.
  41. ↑ "Largest Cities Through History". Geography.about.com. 2013-11-14. Retrieved 2013-12-10.
  42. ↑ Jonathan D. Spence. God's Chinese Son, New York 1996
  43. ↑ Williams, S. Wells. The Middle Kingdom: a Survey of the Geography, Government, Literature, Social Life, Arts, & History of the Chinese Empire & its Inhabitants, Vol. 1. Scribner (New York), 1904.
  44. ↑ Yang & Lu 2001, pp. 616–617
  45. ↑ Johannes L. Kurz, "Boni in Chinese Sources: Translations of Relevant Texts from the Song to the Qing Dynasties", Nalanda-Sriwijaya Centre Working Paper No 4 (July 2011),
  46. ↑ Wakeman 1985, p. 346.
  47. ↑ Struve 1988, p. 644.
  48. ↑ Struve 1988, p. 642. The prince was a grandson of the Wanli Emperor (r. 1573–1620). The Wanli Emperor's attempt to name Zhu Yousong's father as heir apparent had been thwarted by supporters of the Donglin movement because Zhu Yousong's father was not the Wanli Emperor's eldest son. Although this was three generations earlier, Donglin officials in Nanjing nonetheless feared that the prince might retaliate against them.
  49. ↑ Struve (1993), p.55–56
  50. ↑ Struve (1993), pp. 60–61
  51. ↑ Struve (1993), pp. 62–63
  52. ↑ Wakeman 1985, p. 578.
  53. ↑ Wakeman 1985, p. 647; Struve 1988, p. 662; Dennerline 2002, p. 87 (which calls this edict "the most untimely promulgation of [Dorgon's] career."
  54. ↑ Struve (1993), pp. 64–65, 72
  55. ↑ "清督驻所太平天国定鼎". 南京市志（第1册）.
  56. ↑ Cassel, Pär (2003), "Excavating Extraterritoriality: The "Judicial Sub-Prefect" as a Prototype for the Mixed Court in Shanghai", Late Imperial China, Vol. 24, No. 2, pp. 156–182.
  57. ↑ Publicado por Eduardo Real. "Eduardo Real: ‘’The Taiping Rebellion’’". Dangeroustravel.blogspot.com. Retrieved 2013-03-26.
  58. ↑ "Necrometrics." Nineteenth Century Death Tolls cites a number of sources, some of which are reliable.
  59. ↑ Ho Ping-ti. STUDIES ON THE POPULATION OF CHINA, 1368–1953. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1959. p. 237
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References

See also: Bibliography of the history of Nanjing
Preceded by
Beijing		 Capital of China
1368–1420 		Succeeded by
Beijing
Capital of China
1928–1937 		Succeeded by
Wuhan (wartime)
Preceded by
Chongqing (wartime)		 Capital of China
1945-1949 		Succeeded by
Guangzhou (after 23 April)
Taipei (de facto)
for the Republic of China
Succeeded by
Beijing
for the People's Republic of China
 
Rank Name Province Pop. Rank Name Province Pop.

Shanghai

Beijing		 1 Shanghai Shanghai 20,217,700 11 Foshan Guangdong 6,771,900
Chongqing

Guangzhou
2 Beijing Beijing 16,858,700 12 Nanjing Jiangsu 6,238,200
3 Chongqing Chongqing 12,389,500 13 Shenyang Liaoning 5,890,700
4 Guangzhou Guangdong 10,641,400 14 Hangzhou Zhejiang 5,578,300
5 Shenzhen Guangdong 10,358,400 15 Xi'an Shaanxi 5,399,300
6 Tianjin Tianjin 10,007,700 16 Harbin Heilongjiang 5,178,000
7 Wuhan Hubei 7,541,500 17 Dalian Liaoning 4,222,400
8 Dongguan Guangdong 7,271,300 18 Suzhou Jiangsu 4,083,900
9 Chengdu Sichuan 7,112,000 19 Qingdao Shandong 3,990,900
10 Hong Kong Hong Kong 7,055,071 20 Zhengzhou Henan 3,677,000
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