Hanuman

Hanuman

Hanuman painted in Pahari style
Devanagari हनुमान्
Sanskrit transliteration Hanumān
Affiliation Rama and Sita (Vaishnavism), Shiva avatar[1]
Weapon Gada (mace)
Texts Ramayana, Ramcharitmanas
Personal Information
Parents

Hanuman (/ˈhʌnʊˌmɑːn/; IAST: Hanumān)[3] is an ardent devotee of Rama.[1] He is one of the central characters in the various versions of the epic Ramayana found in the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia.[4] As one of the Chiranjivi, he is also mentioned in several other texts, such as the Mahabharata,[1] the various Puranas and some Jain,[5] Buddhist,[6] and Sikh texts.[7] Several later texts also present him as an incarnation of Shiva.[1] Hanuman is the son of Anjana and Kesari and is also son of the wind-god Pawan, who according to several stories, played a role in his birth.[2][8]

His theological origins in Hinduism are unclear. Alternate theories include him having ancient roots, being a non-Aryan deity who was Sanskritized by the Vedic Aryans, or that he is a fusion deity who emerged in literary works from folk Yaksha protector deities and theological symbolism.[9][10]:39–40

While Hanuman is one of the central characters in the ancient Hindu epic Ramayana, the evidence of devotional worship to him is missing in the texts and archeological sites of ancient and most of the medieval period. According to Philip Lutgendorf, an American Indologist known for his studies on Hanuman, the theological significance and devotional dedication to Hanuman emerged about 1,000 years after the composition of the Ramayana, in the 2nd millennium CE, after the arrival of Islamic rule in the Indian subcontinent.[11] Bhakti movement saints such as Samarth Ramdas expressed Hanuman as a symbol of nationalism and resistance to persecution.[12] In the modern era, his iconography and temples have been increasingly common.[13] He is viewed as the ideal combination of "strength, heroic initiative and assertive excellence" and "loving, emotional devotion to his personal god Rama", as Shakti and Bhakti.[14] In later literature, he has been the patron god of martial arts such as wrestling, acrobatics, as well as meditation and diligent scholarship.[1] He symbolizes the human excellences of inner self-control, faith and service to a cause, hidden behind the first impressions of a being who looks like a monkey.[13][15][9]

Besides being a popular deity in Hinduism, Hanuman is also found in Jainism and Buddhism.[5][16] He is also a legendary character in legends and arts found outside Indian subcontinent such as in Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Malaysia and Bali Indonesia. Outside India, Hanuman shares many characteristics with the Hindu versions in India, but differs in others. He is heroic, brave and steadfastly chaste, much like in the Sanskrit tradition, but not celibate. He marries and has children in other cultures, as is the case in a few regional versions in India. Hanuman is stated by scholars to be the inspiration for the allegory-filled adventures of a monkey hero in the Xiyouji (Journey to the West) – the great Chinese poetic novel influenced by the travels of Buddhist monk Xuanzang (602–664 CE) to India.[5][17]

Nomenclature

Hanuman with a Namaste (Anjali Hasta) posture.

The meaning or the origin of word "Hanuman" is unclear. In the Hindu pantheon, deities typically have many synonymous names, each based on the noble characteristic or attribute or reminder of that deity's mythical deed.[10]:31–32 Hanuman too has many names, but most are rarely used. His most popular and well known name is "Hanuman".

One interpretation of the term is that it means "one having a jaw (hanu) that is prominent (mant)". This version is supported by a Puranic legend wherein baby Hanuman mistakes the sun for a fruit, attempts to heroically reach it, is wounded and gets a disfigured jaw.[10]:31–32

A second, less common interpretation is that the name derives from the Sanskrit words Han ("killed" or "destroyed") and maana (pride); the name implies "one whose pride was destroyed". This epithet resonates with the story in the Ramayana about his emotional devotion to Rama and Sita. He combines two of the most cherished traits in the Hindu bhakti-shakti worship traditions: "heroic, strong, assertive excellence" and "loving, emotional devotion to personal god".[10]:31–32

A third conjecture is found in Jain texts. This version states that Hanuman spent his childhood on an island called Hanuruha, which served as the origin of his name.[10]:189

Linguistic variations of "Hanuman" include Hanumat, Anuman (Tamil), Hanumantha (Kannada), Hanumanthudu (Telugu). Other names of Hanuman include:

Outside the Indian subcontinent, though his iconography and the details of his legends vary, his names are phonetic similar to the Indian version:

Historical development

Standing Hanuman, Chola Dynasty, 11th century, Tamil Nadu, India

Vedic roots

The earliest mention of a divine monkey, interpreted by some scholars as the proto-Hanuman, is in hymn 10.86 of the Rigveda, dated to between 1500 to 1200 BCE. The twenty three verses of the hymn is a metaphor and riddle filled legend. It is presented as a dialogue between multiple characters: god Indra, his wife Indrani and an energetic monkey it refers to as Vrisakapi and his wife Kapi.[26][27][10]:39–40 The hymn opens with Indrani complaining to Indra that some of the soma offerings for Indra have been assigned to the energetic and strong monkey, and the people are forgetting Indra. The king of gods Indra responds by stating to his wife that the living being (monkey) that bothers her is to be seen as a friend, and that they should make an effort to be together in peace. The hymn closes with all agreeing that they should come together in Indra's house and share the wealth of offerings.[10]:39–40

This hymn, which includes an explicit discussion of sex and differences between species, has been interpreted in a number of ways by contemporary scholars.[27][10]:305 R.N. Dandekar states that it may metaphorically refer to another fertility god, while Wendy Doniger compares it to horse sacrifice. Stephanie Jamison states that the hymn mentions a bull-monkey, a euphemism for a horse and fertility ritual, very different from later era Hanuman. According to Philip Lutgendorf, there is "no convincing evidence for a monkey-worshipping cult in ancient India".[27]

Tamil roots

The orientalist F. E. Pargiter (1852-1927) theorized that Hanuman was a proto-Dravidian deity.[10]:40 According to this theory, the name "Hanuman" derives from the Tamil word for male monkey (ana-mandi), first transformed to "Anumant" – a name which remains in use. "Anumant", according to this hypothesis, was later Sanskritized to "Hanuman" because the ancient Aryans confronted with a popular monkey deity of ancient Dravidians coopted the concept and then Sanskritized it.[10]:39–40[28] According to Murray Emeneau, known for his Tamil linguistic studies, this theory does not make sense because the Old Tamil word mandi in Caṅkam literature can only mean "female monkey", and Hanuman is male. Further, adds Emeneau, the compound ana-mandi makes no semantic sense in Tamil, which has well developed and sophisticated grammar and semantic rules. The "prominent jaw" etymology, according to Emeneau, is therefore plausible.[10]:39–40

Epics and Puranas

Sita's scepticism

Vanaranam naranam
ca kathamasit samagamah

Translation:
How can there be a
relationship between men and monkeys?

—Valmiki's Ramayana'
Sita's first meeting with Hanuman
(Translator: Philip Lutgendorf)[29]

Hanuman is mentioned in both the Hindu epics, Ramayana and Mahabharata.[30] A twentieth-century Jesuit missionary Camille Bulcke, in his Ramkatha: Utpatti Aur Vikas ("The tale of Rama: its origin and development"), proposed that Hanuman worship had its basis in the cults of aboriginal tribes of Central India.[31]

Hanuman is mentioned in the Puranas.[32] A medieval legend posited Hanuman as an avatar of the god Shiva by the 10th century CE (this development possibly started as early as in the 8th century CE).[31][33] Hanuman is mentioned as an avatar of Shiva or Rudra in the medieval era Sanskrit texts like the Mahabhagvata Purana, the Skanda Purana, the Brhaddharma Purana and the Mahanataka among others. This development might have been a result of the Shavite attempts to insert their ishta devata (cherished deity) in the Vaishnavite texts.[31]

Other mythologies, such as those found in South India, present Hanuman as a being who is the union of Shiva and Vishnu, or associated with the origin of Ayyappa.[1] The 17th century Odia work Rasavinoda by Dinakrishnadasa goes on to mention that the three gods – Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva – combined to take to the form of Hanuman.[34]

Late medieval and modern era

Numerous 14th-century and later Hanuman images are found in the ruins of the Hindu Vijayanagara Empire.[10]:64–71

In Valmiki's Ramayana, estimated to have been composed before or in about the 3rd century BCE, Hanuman is an important, creative character as a simian helper and messenger for Rama. The character evolved over time, reflecting regional cultural values. It is, however, in the late medieval era that his profile evolves into more central role and dominance as the exemplary spiritual devotee, particularly with the popular vernacular text Ramcharitmanas by Tulasidas (~ 1575 CE).[35][4] According to scholars such as Patrick Peebles and others, during a period of religious turmoil and Islamic rule of the Indian subcontinent, the Bhakti movement and devotionalism-oriented Bhakti yoga had emerged as a major trend in Hindu culture by the 16th-century, and the Ramcharitmanas presented Rama as a Vishnu avatar, supreme being and a personal god worthy of devotion, with Hanuman as the ideal loving devotee with legendary courage, strength and powers.[12][36]

Hanuman evolved and emerged in this era as the ideal combination of shakti and bhakti.[14] Stories and folk traditions in and after the 17th century, began to reformulate and present Hanuman as a divine being, as a descendent of deities, and as an avatar of Shiva.[36] He emerged as a champion of those religiously persecuted, expressing resistance, a yogi,[10]:85 an inspiration for martial artists and warriors,[10]:57-64 a character with less fur and increasingly human symbolizing cherished virtues and internal values worthy of devotion in his own right.[12][37] Hindu monks morphed into soldiers, and they named their organizations after Hanuman.[38][39] This evolution of Hanuman's character, religious and cultural role as well as his iconography continued through the colonial era and in post-colonial times.[40]

Birth

In Indian mythology, Hanuman was born to Anjana and father Kesari.[1][41] Hanuman is also called the son of the deity Vayu (Wind god, himself the son of Vishnu) because of legends associated with Vayu's role in Hanuman's birth. One story mentioned in Eknath's Bhavartha Ramayana (16th century CE) states that when Anjana was worshiping Shiva, the King Dasharatha of Ayodhya was also performing the ritual of Putrakama yagna in order to have children. As a result, he received some sacred pudding (payasam) to be shared by his three wives, leading to the births of Rama, Lakshmana, Bharata, and Shatrughna. By divine ordinance, a kite snatched a fragment of that pudding and dropped it while flying over the forest where Anjana was engaged in worship. Vayu, the Hindu deity of the wind, delivered the falling pudding to the outstretched hands of Anjana, who consumed it. Hanuman was born to her as a result.[41]

Child Hanuman reaches for the Sun thinking it is a fruit by BSP Pratinidhi

Childhood

According to Valmiki's Ramayana, one morning in his childhood, Hanuman was hungry and saw the rising red colored sun. Mistaking it for a ripe fruit, he leapt up to eat it. In one version of the Hindu legend, the king of gods Indra intervened and struck his thunderbolt. It hit Hanuman on his jaw, and he fell to the earth unconscious with a broken jaw. His father, Vayu (air), states Ramayana in section 4.65, became upset and withdrew. The lack of air created immense suffering to all living beings. This led Prajapati, the god of life, to intervene and resuscitate Hanuman, which in turn prompted Vayu to return to the living beings.[42]

In another Hindu version of his childhood legend, which Lutgendorf states is likely older and also found in Jain texts such as the 8th-century Dhurtakhyana, after Hanuman's Icarus like leap for the sun, it proves to be fatal and he is burnt to ashes from sun's heat. His ashes fall onto the earth and oceans.[43] Gods then gather the ashes and his bones from land and, with the help of fishes, from the water and re-assemble him. They find everything except one fragment of his jaw bone. His great grandfather on his mother's side then asks Surya to restore the child to life. Surya returns him to life, but Hanuman is left with a disfigured jaw.[43]

Attributes

Hanuman has many attributes:

Hanuman fetches the herb-bearing mountain, in a print from the Ravi Varma Press, 1910s
Hanuman showing Rama in His heart

Texts

Hinduism

Ramayana

Hanuman finds Sita in the ashoka grove, and shows her Rama's ring

The Sundara Kanda, the fifth book in the Ramayana, focuses on Hanuman. Hanuman meets Rama in the last year the latter's 14-year exile, after the demon king Ravana had kidnapped Sita. With his brother Lakshmana, Rama is searching for his wife Sita. This, and related Rama legends are the most extensive stories about Hanuman.[49][50]

Numerous versions of the Ramayana exist within India. These present variant legends of Hanuman, Rama, Sita, Lakshamana and Ravana. The characters and their descriptions vary, in some cases quite significantly.[51]

Mahabharata

Roadside Hanuman shrine south of Chennai, Tamil Nadu

The Mahabharata is another major epic which has a short mention of Hanuman. In Book 3, the Vana Parva of the Mahabharata, he is presented as a half brother of Bhima, who meets him accidentally on his way to Mount Kailasha. A man of extraordinary strength, Bhima is unable to move Hanuman's tail, making him realize and acknowledge the strength of Hanuman. This story attests to the ancient chronology of the Hanuman character. It is also a part of artwork and reliefs such as those at the Vijayanagara ruins.[52][53]

Other literature

Apart from Ramayana and Mahabharata, Hanuman is mentioned in several other texts. Some of these stories add to his adventures mentioned in the earlier epics, while others tell alternative stories of his life. The Skanda Purana mentions Hanuman in Rameswaram.[54]

In a South Indian version of Shiva Purana, Hanuman is described as the son of Shiva and Mohini (the female avatar of Vishnu), or alternatively his mythology has been linked to or merged with the origin of Swami Ayyappa who is popular in parts of South India.[1]

Hanuman Chalisa

The 16th-century Indian poet Tulsidas wrote Hanuman Chalisa, a devotional song dedicated to Hanuman. He claimed to have visions where he met face to face with Hanuman. Based on these meetings, he wrote Ramcharitmanas, an Awadhi language version of Ramayana.[55]

Buddhism

Hanuman appears with a Buddhist gloss in Tibetan (southwest China) and Khotanese (west China, central Asia and northern Iran) versions of Ramayana. The Khotanese versions have a Jataka tales like theme, but are generally similar to the Hindu texts in the story line and in the character of Hanuman. The Tibetan version is more embellished, and without attempts to put a Jataka gloss. Further, in Tibetan version, novel elements appear such as where Hanuman carries love letters between Rama and Sita in addition to the Hindu version where Rama sends with him the wedding ring as a message to Sita. Further, in Tibetan version, Rama chides Hanuman for not corresponding with him through letters more often implying that the monkey-messenger and warrior is a learned being who can read and write letters.[6][56]

In Japan, icons of the divine monkey (Saruta Biko), guards temples such as Saru-gami at Hie Shrine.[57][58]

In Sri Lankan version of Ramayana, which are titled after Ravana, the story is less melodramatic than the Indian versions. Many of the bravery and innovativeness legends relating to Hanuman are found in Sinhala versions, the characters have Buddhist themes, and lack the embedded ethics and values structure according to Hindu dharma.[59] According to Hera Walker, some Sinhalese communities seek the aid of Hanuman through prayers to his mother.[60] In Chinese Buddhist texts, states Arthur Cotterall, myths mention meeting of the Buddha with Hanuman, as well as Hanuman's great triumphs.[61] According to Rosalind Lefeber, the arrival of Hanuman in East Asian Buddhist text may trace its roots to the translation of Ramayana into Chinese and Tibetan in 6th-century CE.[62]

In both China and Japan, according to Lutgendorf, much like India there is a lack of a radical divide between humans and animals, with all living beings and nature assumed to be related to humans. There is no exaltation of humans over animals or nature, unlike the Western traditions. Divine monkey has been a part of the historic literature and culture of China and Japan, possibly influenced by the close cultural contact through Buddhist monks and pilgrimage to India over two millennia.[57] For example, the Japanese text Keiranshuyoshu, while presenting its mythology about divine monkey, that is the theriomorphic Shinto emblem of Hie shrines, describes a flying white monkey that carries a mountain from India to China, then from China to Japan.[63] Many Japanese shrines and village boundaries, dated to be from 8th to 14th centuries, feature monkey deity as guardians or intermediaries between the humans and the gods.[57][58]

The Jataka tales contain Hanuman-like stories.[64] For example, the Buddha is described as a monkey-king in one of his earlier births in the Mahakapi Jataka, wherein he as a compassionate monkey suffers and is abused, but who nevertheless continues to follow dharma in helping a human being who is lost and in danger.[65][66]

Jainism

Paumacariya (also known as Pauma Chariu or Padmacharit), the Jain version of Ramayana written by Vimalasuri, mentions Hanuman not as a divine monkey, but as a Vidyadhara (a supernatural being, demigod in Jain cosmology).[67][68] He is the son of Pavangati (wind deity) and Anjana Sundari. Anjana gives birth to Hanuman in a forest cave, after being banished by her in-laws. Her maternal uncle rescues her from the forest; while boarding his vimana, Anjana accidentally drops her baby on a rock. However, the baby remains uninjured while the rock is shattered. The baby is raised in Hanuruha, his great uncle's island kingdom, from which Hanuman gets his name.[10]:51-52 Hanuman's strength is not his own achievement, but attributed to his mother's asceticism.[67] In Jain texts, Hanuman is depicted as the 17th of 24 Kamadevas, the one who is ultimately handsome.[10]:330

In Jain version, Hanuman is not celibate, Rama is a pious Jaina who never kills anyone, and it is Lakshamana who kills Ravana. Hanuman is sexually active personality in the Jain versions, marries princess Anangakusuma, the daughter of Kharadushana and Ravana's sister Chandranakha. Ravana also presents Hanuman one of his nieces as a second wife. After becoming an ally of Sugriva, Hanuman acquires a hundred more wives. Hanuman becomes a supporter of Rama after meeting him and learning about Sita's kidnapping by Ravana. He goes to Lanka on Rama's behalf, but is unable to convince Ravana to give up Sita. Ultimately, he joins Rama in the war against Ravana and performs several heroic deeds.[10]:50–51 Later Jain texts, such as Uttarapurana (9th century CE) by Gunabhadra and Anjana-Pavananjaya (12th century CE), tell the same story.

In several versions of Jain Ramayana story, there are passages that explain to Hanuman, and Rama (called Pauma in Jainism), that attachment to women and pleasures are evil. Hanuman, in these versions, ultimately renounces all social and material life to become a Jain ascetic.[69]

Sikhism

In Sikhism, Hindu god Rama has been referred to as Sri Ram Chandar, and the story of Hanuman as a siddha has been influential. After the birth of martial Sikh Khalsa movement in 1699, during the 18th and 19th century, Hanuman was an inspiration and object of reverence by the Khalsa.[7] Some Khalsa regiments brought along Hanuman image to the battle ground. The Sikh texts such as Hanuman Natak composed by Hirda Ram Bhalla, and Das Gur Katha by Kavi Kankan describe the heroic deeds of Hanuman.[70] According to Louis Fenech, the Sikh tradition states that Guru Gobind Singh was a fond reader of the Hanuman Natak text.[7]

During the colonial era, Sikh seminaries in what is now Pakistan, Sikh teachers were called bhai, and they were required to study the Hanuman Natak, Hanuman story containing Ramcharitmanas and other texts, all of which were available in Gurmukhi script.[71]

Southeast Asian texts

Although Hanuman practices celibacy in most Indian texts, he is depicted to have sexual relationships with many women in southeast Asian versions of his story.[72] The above paintings at the Temple of the Emerald Buddha in Bangkok depicts his intercourse with Butsamali (บุษมาลี), a fallen angel, and Suphannamatcha (สุพรรณมัจฉา), a mermaid.

The non-Indian versions of Ramayana, such as the Thai Ramakien, mention that Hanuman had relationships with multiple women, including Svayamprabha, Benjakaya (Vibhisana's daughter), Suvannamaccha and even Ravana's wife Mandodari.[31] According to these versions of the Ramayana, Macchanu is son of Hanuman borne by Suvannamaccha, daughter of Ravana.[73] The Jain text Paumacariya mentions that Hanuman married Lankasundari, the daughter of Lanka's chief defender Bajramukha.[74]

Another legend says that a demigod named Matsyaraja (also known as Makardhwaja or Matsyagarbha) claimed to be his son. Matsyaraja's birth is explained as follows: a fish (matsya) was impregnated by the drops of Hanuman's sweat, while he was bathing in the ocean.[31] According to Parasara Samhita, Hanuman married Suvarchala, the daughter of Surya (the Sun God).[75]

The Hanuman in southeast Asian texts differs from north Indian Hindu version in various ways in the Burmese Ramayana, such as Rama Yagan, Alaung Rama Thagyin (in the Arakanese dialect), Rama Vatthu and Rama Thagyin, the Malay Ramayana, such as Hikayat Sri Rama and Hikayat Maharaja Ravana, and the Thai Ramayana, such as Ramakien. However, in some cases, the aspects of the story are similar to Hindu versions and Jaina or Buddhist versions of Ramayana found elsewhere on the Indian subcontinent.[76]

Significance and influence

Hanuman became more important in the medieval period and came to be portrayed as the ideal devotee (bhakta) of Rama.[31] Hanuman's life, devotion, celibacy and strength inspired wrestlers in India.[77]

Hanuman in 17th-century

Greater than Rama, is Rama's servant [Hanuman].

— Tulsidas, Ramcharitmanas 7.120.14[78]

According to Philip Lutgendorf, devotionalism to Hanuman and his theological significance emerged long after the composition of the Ramayana, in the 2nd millennium CE. His prominence grew after the arrival of Islamic rule in the Indian subcontinent.[79] He is viewed as the ideal combination of shakti ("strength, heroic initiative and assertive excellence") and bhakti ("loving, emotional devotion to his personal god Rama").[80] Beyond wrestlers, he has been the patron god of other martial arts. He is stated to be a gifted grammarian, meditating yogi and diligent scholar. He exemplifies the human excellences of temperance, faith and service to a cause.[13][81][9]

In 17th-century north and western regions of India, Hanuman emerged as an expression of resistance and dedication against Islamic persecution. For example, the bhakti poet-saint Ramdas presented Hanuman as a symbol of Marathi nationalism and resistance to Mughal Empire.[12]

Hanuman in the colonial and post-colonial era has been a cultural icon, as a symbolic ideal combination of shakti and bhakti, as a right of Hindu people to express and pursue their forms of spirituality and religious beliefs (dharma).[14][82] Political and religious organizations have named themselves after him or his synonyms such as Bajrang.[83][38][84] Political parades or religious processions have featured men dressed up as Hanuman, along with women dressed up as gopis (milkmaids) of god Krishna, as an expression of their pride and right to their heritage, culture and religious beliefs.[85][86] According to some scholars, the Hanuman-linked youth organizations have tended to have a paramilitary wing and have opposed other religions, with a mission of resisting the "evil eyes of Islam, Christianity and Communism", or as a symbol of Hindu nationalism.[87][88]

Iconography

A five-headed panchamukha Hanuman icon. It is found in esoteric tantric traditions that weave Vaishvana and Shaiva ideas, and is relatively uncommon.[89][10]:319, 380-388

Hanuman's iconography shows him either with other central characters of the Ramayana or by himself. If with Rama and Sita, he is shown to the right of Rama, as a devotee bowing or kneeling before them with a Namaste (Anjali Hasta) posture. If alone, he carries weapons such as a big Gada (mace) and thunderbolt (vajra), sometimes in a scene reminiscent of a scene from his life.[1][90]

In the modern era, his iconography and temples have been common. He is typically shown with Rama, Sita and Lakshmana, near or in Vaishnavism temples, as well as by himself usually opening his chest to symbolically show images of Rama and Sita near his heart. He is also popular among the followers of Shaivism.[13]

In north India, aniconic representation of Hanuman such as a round stone has been in use by yogi, as a means to help focus on the abstract aspects of him.[91]

Temples and shrines

41 meters (135 Ft) high Hanuman monument at Paritala, Andhra Pradesh

Hanuman is often worshipped along with Rama and Sita of Vaishnavism, sometimes independently.[4] There are numerous statues to celebrate or temples to worship Hanuman all over India. In some regions, he is considered as an avatar of Shiva, the focus of Shaivism.[4] According to a review by Lutgendorf, some scholars state that the earliest Hanuman murtis appeared in the 8th-century, but verifiable evidence of Hanuman images and inscriptions appear in the 10th century in Indian monasteries in central and north India.[10]:60

Tuesday and Saturday of every week are particular popular days at Hanuman temples. Some people keep a partial or full fast on either of those two days and remember Hanuman and theology he represents to them.[10]:11–12, 101

Major temples and shrines of Hanuman include:

In India, the annual autumn season Ramlila play feature Hanuman, enacted during Navratri by rural artists (above).

Festivals and celebrations

Hanuman is a central character in the annual Ramlila celebrations in India, and seasonal dramatic arts in southeast Asia particularly Thailand, Bali and Java Indonesia. Ramlila is a dramatic folk re-enactment of the life of Rama according to the ancient Hindu epic Ramayana or secondary literature based on it such as the Ramcharitmanas.[97] It particularly refers to the thousands[98] of dramatic plays and dance events, that are staged during the annual autumn festival of Navratri in India.[99] Hanuman is features in many parts of the folk enacted play of the legendary war between Good and Evil, with the celebrations climaxing in the Dussehra (Dasara, Vijayadashami) night festivities where the giant grotesque effigies of Evil such as of demon Ravana are burnt, typically with fireworks.[100][101]

The Ramlila festivities were declared by UNESCO as one of the "Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity" in 2008. Ramlila is particularly notable in historically important Hindu cities of Ayodhya, Varanasi, Vrindavan, Almora, Satna and Madhubani – cities in Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Bihar and Madhya Pradesh.[100]

Hanuman's birthday is observed by some Hindus as Hanuman Jayanti. It falls in much of India in the traditional month of Chaitra in lunisolar Hindu calendar, which overlaps with March and April. However, in parts of Kerala and Tamil Nadu, Hanuman Jayanthi is observed in the regional Hindu month of Margazhi, which overlaps with December and January. The festive day is observed with devotees gathering at Hanuman temples before sunrise, and day long spiritual recitations and story reading about the victory of good over evil.[8]

Hanuman in Southeast Asia

Hanuman is a revered heroic figure in Khmer history in southeast Asia. He features predominantly in the Reamker, a Cambodian epic poem, based on the Sanskrit's Ramayana epic.[102] Intricate carvings on the walls of Angkor Wat depict scenes from the Ramayana including those of Hanuman.[103]

Hanuman statue at Bali, Indonesia

In Cambodia and many other parts of southeast Asia, mask dance and shadow theatre arts celebrate Hanuman with Ream (same as Rama of India). Hanuman is represented by a white mask.[104][105] Particularly popular in southeast Asian theatre are Hanuman's accomplishments as a martial artist and as an amorous seducer of women, in interpolated plays that are missing from most versions of the Indian Ramayana.[106]

Indonesia

Hanuman is the central character in many of the historic dance and drama art works such as Wayang Wong found in Hindu communities of Bali Indonesia. These performance arts can be traced to at least the 10th century.[107] He has been popular, along with the local versions of Ramayana in other islands of Indonesia such as Java.[108][109]

In major medieval era Hindu temples, archeological sites and manuscripts discovered in Indonesian and Malay islands, Hanuman features prominently along with Rama, Sita, Lakshmana, Vishvamitra and Sugriva.[110][111] The most studied and detailed relief artworks are found in Candi Panataran and Prambanan.[112][113]

Above is a Thai iconography of Hanuman. He is one of the most popular characters of Ramakien.[114]

Hanuman, along with other characters of the Ramayana, are an important source of plays and dance theatre repertoire at Odalan celebrations and other festivals in Bali.[115]

Thailand

Hanuman has been a historic and popular character of Ramakien in Thai culture. He appears wearing a crown on his head and armor. He is depicted as an albino white, strong character with open mouth in action, sometimes shown carrying a trident. In Ramkien, Hanuman is a devoted soldier of Rama. Unlike in Indian adaptations, he is not celibate, and he is presented as a ladies man, according to Paula Richman.[116] He meets the mermaid Suvannamaccha and the couple have a son. Hanuman plays a dominant role in the Thai version of the Ramayana epic.[117]

Like the Indian tradition, Hanuman is the patron of martial arts and an example of courage, fortitude and excellence in Thailand.[118]

See also

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 George M. Williams (2008). Handbook of Hindu Mythology. Oxford University Press. pp. 146–148. ISBN 978-0-19-533261-2.
  2. 1 2 Bibek Debroy (2012). The Mahabharata: Volume 3. Penguin Books. pp. 184 with footnote 686. ISBN 978-0-14-310015-7.
  3. ↑ "Hanuman", Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 Peter J. Claus; Sarah Diamond; Margaret Ann Mills (2003). South Asian Folklore: An Encyclopedia : Afghanistan, Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka. Taylor & Francis. pp. 280–281. ISBN 978-0-415-93919-5.
  5. 1 2 3 Wendy Doniger, Hanuman: Hindu mythology, Encyclopaedia Britannica; For a summary of the Chinese text, see Xiyouji: NOVEL BY WU CHENG’EN
  6. 1 2 Susan Whitfield; Ursula Sims-Williams (2004). The Silk Road: Trade, Travel, War and Faith. Serindia Publications. p. 212. ISBN 978-1-932476-13-2.
  7. 1 2 3 Louis E. Fenech; W. H. McLeod (2014). Historical Dictionary of Sikhism. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 143–144. ISBN 978-1-4422-3601-1.
  8. 1 2 J. Gordon Melton; Martin Baumann (2010). Religions of the World: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia of Beliefs and Practices, 2nd Edition. ABC-CLIO. pp. 1310–1311. ISBN 978-1-59884-204-3.
  9. 1 2 3 Catherine Ludvik (1994). Hanumān in the Rāmāyaṇa of Vālmīki and the Rāmacaritamānasa of Tulasī Dāsa. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 2–9. ISBN 978-81-208-1122-5.
  10. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 Philip Lutgendorf (2007). Hanuman's Tale: The Messages of a Divine Monkey. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-530921-8. Retrieved 14 July 2012.
  11. ↑ Paula Richman (2010), Review: Lutgendorf, Philip's Hanuman's Tale: The Messages of a Divine Monkey, The Journal of Asian Studies; Vol 69, Issue 4 (Nov 2010), pages 1287-1288
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  13. 1 2 3 4 Constance Jones; James D. Ryan (2006). Encyclopedia of Hinduism. Infobase Publishing. pp. 177–178. ISBN 978-0-8160-7564-5.
  14. 1 2 3 Philip Lutgendorf (2007). Hanuman's Tale: The Messages of a Divine Monkey. Oxford University Press. pp. 26–32, 116, 257–259, 388–391. ISBN 978-0-19-530921-8. Retrieved 14 July 2012.
  15. ↑ Lutgendorf, Philip (1997). "Monkey in the Middle: The Status of Hanuman in Popular Hinduism". Religion. Routledge. 27 (4): 311–332. doi:10.1006/reli.1997.0095.
  16. ↑ Lutgendorf, Philip (1994). "My Hanuman Is Bigger Than Yours". History of Religions. University of Chicago Press. 33 (3): 211–245. doi:10.1086/463367.
  17. ↑ H. S. Walker (1998), Indigenous or Foreign? A Look at the Origins of the Monkey Hero Sun Wukong, Sino-Platonic Papers, No. 81. September 1998, Editor: Victor H. Mair, University of Pennsylvania
  18. ↑ Gopal, Madan (1990). K.S. Gautam, ed. India through the ages. Publication Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India. p. 68.
  19. ↑ Sarit Kumar Chaudhuri; Sucheta Sen Chaudhuri (2005). Primitive Tribes in Contemporary India: Concept, Ethnography and Demography. Mittal Publications. p. 45. ISBN 978-81-8324-026-0.
  20. ↑ J.H. Maronier (2013). Pictures of the Tropics: A Catalogue of Drawings, Water-Colours, Paintings and Sculptures in the Collection of the Royal Institute of Linguistics and Anthropology in Leiden. Springer. p. 127. ISBN 978-94-017-6643-2.
  21. ↑ R. V. R. Murthy (2005). Andaman and Nicobar Islands: Development and Decentralization. Mittal Publications. p. 20. ISBN 978-81-8324-049-9.
  22. ↑ Uta Gärtner (1994). Tradition and Modernity in Myanmar. LIT Verlag Münster. p. 317. ISBN 978-3-8258-2186-9.
  23. ↑ Jonathan H. X. Lee; Kathleen M. Nadeau (2011). Encyclopedia of Asian American Folklore and Folklife. ABC-CLIO. p. 184. ISBN 978-0-313-35066-5.
  24. ↑ Marijke Klokke (2006). Archaeology: Indonesian Perspective : R.P. Soejono's Festschrift. Yayasan Obor Indonesia. pp. 391–396. ISBN 978-979-26-2499-1.
  25. ↑ Eugenio Barba; Nicola Savarese (2011). A Dictionary of Theatre Anthropology: The Secret Art of the Performer. Taylor & Francis. pp. 77 with Fig 13. ISBN 978-1-135-17635-8.
  26. ↑ ऋग्वेद:_सूक्तं_१०.८६, Rigveda, Wikisource
  27. 1 2 3 Philip Lutgendorf (1999), Like Mother, Like Son, Sita and Hanuman, Manushi, No. 114, pages 23-25
  28. ↑ Legend of Ram–Retold. PublishAmerica. pp. 56–. ISBN 978-1-4512-2350-7.
  29. ↑ Philip Lutgendorf (1999), Like Mother, Like Son, Sita and Hanuman, Manushi, No. 114, pages 22-23
  30. ↑ Nanditha Krishna (1 January 2010). Sacred Animals of India. Penguin Books India. pp. 178–. ISBN 978-0-14-306619-4.
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  33. ↑ Diana L. Eck (1991). Devotion divine, Bhakti traditions from the regions of India: studies in honour of Charlotte Vaudeville. Egbert Forsten. pp. 69, 62–67. ISBN 978-90-6980-045-5., Quote: "Giving up his Rudra form, Lord Shiva as Hanuman adopted a monkey figure, only in view of his affection for Rama."
  34. ↑ Shanti Lal Nagar (1999). Genesis and evolution of the Rāma kathā in Indian art, thought, literature, and culture: from the earliest period to the modern times. B.R. Pub. Co. ISBN 978-81-7646-082-8. Retrieved 14 July 2012.
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  40. ↑ Philip Lutgendorf (2002), Evolving a monkey: Hanuman, poster art and postcolonial anxiety, Contributions to Indian Sociology, Vol 36, Issue 1-2, pages 71-112
  41. 1 2 Encyclopaedic Dictionary of Puranas Vol 2.(D-H) pp=628-631, Swami Parmeshwaranand, Sarup & Sons, 2001, ISBN 978-81-7625-226-3
  42. ↑ Catherine Ludvik (1994). Hanumān in the Rāmāyaṇa of Vālmīki and the Rāmacaritamānasa of Tulasī Dāsa. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 61–62. ISBN 978-81-208-1122-5.
  43. 1 2 3 Philip Lutgendorf (2007). Hanuman's Tale: The Messages of a Divine Monkey. Oxford University Press. pp. 188–189. ISBN 978-0-19-530921-8. Retrieved 26 May 2017.
  44. ↑ Joginder Narula (1991). Hanuman, God and Epic Hero: The Origin and Growth of Hanuman in Indian Literary and Folk Tradition. Manohar Publications. pp. 19–21. ISBN 978-81-85054-84-1.
  45. ↑ Goldman, Robert P. (Introduction, translation and annotation) (1996). The Ramayana of Valmiki: An Epic of Ancient India, Volume V: Sundarakanda. Princeton University Press, New Jersey. 0691066620. pp. 45-47.
  46. 1 2 3 Catherine Ludvik (1994). Hanumān in the Rāmāyaṇa of Vālmīki and the Rāmacaritamānasa of Tulasī Dāsa. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 12–14. ISBN 978-81-208-1122-5.
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  50. ↑ Catherine Ludvik (1994). Hanumān in the Rāmāyaṇa of Vālmīki and the Rāmacaritamānasa of Tulasī Dāsa. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 1–16. ISBN 978-81-208-1122-5.
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Bibliography

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