Medieval Bulgarian army

The medieval Bulgarian army was the primary military body of the First and the Second Bulgarian Empires. During the first decades after the foundation of the country, the army consisted of a Bulgar cavalry and a Slavic infantry. The core of the Bulgarian army was the heavy cavalry, which consisted of 12,000–30,000^[2] heavily armed riders. At its height in the 9th and 10th centuries, it was one of the most formidable military forces in Europe and was feared by its enemies. There are several documented cases of Byzantine commanders abandoning an invasion because of a reluctance to confront the Bulgarian army on its home territory.^[3][4][5]

The army was intrinsically linked to the very existence of the Bulgarian state. Its success under Tsar Simeon I marked the creation of a wide-ranging empire, and its defeat in a prolonged war of attrition in the early 11th century meant the end of Bulgarian independence. When the Bulgarian state was reestablished in 1185, a series of capable emperors achieved a remarkable string of victories over the Byzantines and the Western Crusaders, but as the state and its army fragmented in the 13th and 14th centuries, it proved unable to halt the Ottoman advance, which resulted in the conquest of all of Bulgaria by 1422. It would not be until 1878, with the Liberation of Bulgaria, that a Bulgarian military would be restored.

History

7th-8th century

The early Bulgars were a warlike people and war was part of their everyday life, with every adult Bulgar obliged to fight. The early Bulgars were exclusively horsemen: in their culture, the horse was considered a sacred animal and received special care.

The supreme commander was the khan, who mustered the army with the help of the aristocracy. The military ranks from lowest to highest were bagain, bagatur, boil, tarkhan. The permanent army consisted of the khan's guard of select warriors, while the campaign army consisted practically of the entire nation, assembled by clans. In the field, the army was divided into right and left wings.

The Bulgars were well versed in the use of stratagems. They often held a strong cavalry unit in reserve, which would attack the enemy at an opportune moment. They also sometimes concentrated their free horses behind their battle formation to avoid surprise attacks from the rear.They used ambushes and feigned retreats, during which they rode with their backs to the horse, firing clouds of arrows on the enemy. If the enemy pursued disorganized, they would turn back and fiercely attack them. According to contemporary historians, the Bulgars "could see in the dark like bats"^[6] and often fought at night.

The Bulgarian army was well armed according to the Avar model: the soldiers had a sabre or a sword, a long spear and a bow with an arrow-quiver on the back. On the saddle they hung a round shield, a mace and a lasso, which the Bulgarians called arkani. On their decorated belts the soldiers carried the most necessary objects such as flints and steel, a knife, a cup and a needle case. The heavy cavalry was supplied with metal armour and helmets. The horses were also armoured. Armour was of two types — chain-mail and plate armour. The commanders had belts with golden or silver buckles which corresponded to their rank and title.^[6]

The army had iron discipline, with the officers vigorously checking if everything was ready before a battle. For a horse that was undernourished or not properly taken care of, the punishment was death. The soldiers were under threat of a death penalty when having a loose bow-string or an unmaintained sword; or even if riding a war horse in peacetime.^[8]

The infantry of the newly formed state was composed mainly of Slavs, who were generally lightly armed soldiers, although their chieftains usually had small cavalry retinues. The Slavic footmen were equipped with swords, spears, bows and wooden or leather shields. However, they were less disciplined and less effective than the Bulgar cavalry.

In 680, the Byzantines under Constantine IV were crushed in the battle of Ongal and were forced to conclude a humiliating peace treaty by which they de jure acknowledged the formation of a Bulgarian state on their former territory.^[9] In 718, a Bulgarian intervention was crucial in the repulsion of the Second Arab Siege of Constantinople. According to contemporaries, the Arabs feared the Bulgarian army and built trenches to protect themselves from a cavalry charge. In the decisive battle in the summer that year the Bulgarians slaughtered between 20,000 and 32,000 Arabs.^[10] Apart from engaging in battle to the south, the Bulgarians had to fight the Avars to the north-west^[11] and the Khazars to the north-east. After bloody fights between the Dnester and the Dneper rivers, the Khazar threat was eliminated but the founder of the Bulgarian state Khan Asparukh perished in one of the battles in 700.^[12]

Krum's dynasty

On the turn of the 9th century, the Bulgarian Empire was on the rise. Following the victory over the Byzantines at Marcelae in 792, the country overcame a 50-year crisis and entered the new century stronger and consolidated. During the first years of his reign, Khan Krum destroyed the Avar Khaganate and doubled Bulgaria's territory, taking over the fertile Pannonian Plain and the salt and gold mines of Transylvania. Krum achieved major victories over the Byzantine Empire, annihilating the Byzantine armies in the battle of Pliska (811)^[13] and at Versinikia (813), while capturing the important city of Sofia in 809.

The Byzantine historian Pseudo-Simeon stated that Krum sent a 30,000 strong cavalry, "the whole armoured with iron",^[15] which devastated Thrace. According to inscriptions found in the region of Pliska, Preslav, Madara and Shabla in north-eastern Bulgaria, armaments for 1,713 heavy riders were available.^[16] Assuming that the surviving inscriptions are around 1/10 of the total number, that makes 17,130 men only in the so-called "inner region" of Bulgaria. After comparison with the data of Pseudo-Simeon, it can be assumed that the heavy cavalry component of the Bulgarian army numbered between 17-20,000 and 30,000 men, depending on the level of mobilization.^[17] During the end of the 9th and the beginning of the 10th centuries, Emperor Simeon the Great was able to lead in battle more than 60,000 soldiers.^[18]

The Bulgarians crush the Byzantine army in the battle of Versinikia.

The Rus' invasion of Bulgaria.

Traditionally, the army's commander-in-chief was the ruler. The second in the chain of command was the kavkhan who led the army during the Emperor's absence. The third most important title in the hierarchy was the ichirgu-boil who commanded the garrison of the capital. In the field, the army was divided into three parts: center, right flank and left flank. The center was commanded by the ruler, the left flank by the kavkhan and the right flank by the ichirgu-boil.^[19] Other higher military ranks included the tarkhan which was equal to the Byzantine strategos according to Steven Runciman,^[20] and the higher officers were called bagain. All higher military ranks were part of the Bulgarian nobility called bolyars or boils.

Decline under Peter I

During the long years of warfare under Tsar Simeon I the Great (893-927), the country was exhausted.^[21] The constant wars were unpopular enough so that 20,000 people sought refuge in Byzantium because of Simeon's "warlike rush and relentless intentions".^[22] His successor Peter I concluded a favourable peace treaty with the Byzantines, but the situation inside the country saw no improvement. There were many reasons for the decline — some historians dismiss Peter I as a weak ruler, incapable of handling his own family (two of his brothers rose up against him). Furthermore, in the mid-10th century the new Bogomil heresy spread itself widely over the country.^[21][23] The Bogomils preached that people must not follow secular authorities, pay taxes or enroll in the army. As a result, the Bulgarians were unable to stop the Magyars, who looted and plundered the countryside, further contributing to the grim situation of the state. When the Byzantines paid the Rus' knyaz Svyatoslav I to invade Bulgaria in 968, Peter I could send only 30,000 men against the 60,000 strong invading force.^[24] During the Rus' invasion between 968 and 971 the Bulgarians de facto lost control of the north-eastern parts of their country, including the capital Preslav, and in 970, Svyatoslav massacred 300 Bulgarian nobles, the elite of the Bulgarian nation and army, in Silistra.^[17][25]

Cometopuli dynasty

The fall of the north-eastern parts of the Bulgarian Empire under Byzantine rule and the decimation of its military elite had a severe impact on the Bulgarian army,^[26] especially since most of the heavy cavalry which was instrumental in the earlier successes over the Byzantines was recruited exactly in that region. Contemporary sources continue to mention the existence of a Bulgarian cavalry, but it was much reduced in size and was mostly light cavalry.^[27]

Consequently, the infantry's importance grew and the tactics changed to reflect the new conditions: the ambush, although employed in the past, now became the cornerstone of Bulgarian tactics — most Bulgarian victories in that period were a result of ambush and careful exploitation of the terrain.^[29] During this period, the Bulgarians acquired a reputation for their skillful archers.

Despite those difficulties, Emperor Samuil resisted the Byzantine army, which reached its zenith under Basil II, for nearly half a century. In 976 the Bulgarians led by the Cometopuli brothers reconquered the north-eastern parts of the realm. The first Byzantine attempts for counter-attack were repulsed after the annihilation of a 60,000^[30] force in the battle of the Gates of Trajan in 986 in which Basil II himself barely escaped. In the following decade the Bulgarians took Thessaly, destroyed the Principality of Duklja, advanced deep to the south as far as Corinth on the Peloponnese peninsula and campaigned in Dalmatia and Bosnia.

The battle of Spercheios.

However, a major defeat at the battle of Spercheios in 996 signaled that the tide of the war had begun to change in the Byzantines' favour. From 1001 onwards, Basil II launched yearly campaigns into Bulgarian territory, methodically taking important cities such as Preslav, Pliska and Vidin, and inflicting several defeats on Samuil.^[31] In addition, in 1003 Samuil was involved in a war with the Kingdom of Hungary. After years of campaigning, in 1014, in the decisive battle of Kleidion the Bulgarian army was crushed and 14,000 captured Bulgarian soldiers were blinded^[32] and sent to Samuil, who died at the sight of his army on 6 October.

In the battle of Kleidion the Bulgarian army numbered around 20,000 soldiers. According some estimates the total number of the army including the squads of local militia reached a maximum level of 45,000. The Byzantine historian Georgius Monachus Continuatus wrote that the Bulgarian army had 360,000 men, a greatly exaggerated number, the actual being 10 times smaller.^[33]

Asen dynasty

Emperor Ivan Asen II brought the Second Bulgarian Empire to its greatest expansion.

In 1185 the Bulgarian Empire was restored as a result of the successful Rebellion of Asen and Peter, who founded the new Asen dynasty. The long period of Byzantine rule had left its mark on the Bulgarian army — the titles during the Second Empire were mostly borrowed from Byzantium. In the absence of the Emperor the commander-in-chief was called velik (great) voivoda; the commander of smaller squads was a voivoda and a strator was the person responsible for the defense of certain regions and the recruitment of soldiers.

In the late 12th century the army numbered 40,000 men-at-arms.^[34] The country was able to mobilize around 100,000 men in the first decade of the 13th century (Kaloyan reportedly offered the leader of the Fourth Crusade Baldwin I 100,000 soldiers to help him take Constantinople).^[35] In that period the Bulgarian army used large numbers of Cuman cavalry which numbered between 10,000 and 30,000 riders, depending on the campaign. These were drawn from among the Cumans who inhabited Wallachia and Moldavia, and were at least nominally under the suzerainty of the Bulgarian Emperors. The army was well supplied with siege equipment, including battering rams, siege towers and catapults.

In the first fifty years after the reestablishment of the Empire, the Bulgarians, led by skillful commanders such as Peter IV, Ivan Asen I, Kaloyan and Ivan Asen II, achieved massive military successes. After a number of successful battles between 1185 and 1204, the Byzantine Empire was effectively driven from the lands it held in the northern Balkans, and the Imperial crown and cross.^[37] The army of the Crusaders, who established the new Latin Empire, were in turn annihilated in the battle of Adrianople (1205), when their Emperor was captured, and again at Rusion in 1206. The Hungarians were defeated after several fights along the valley of the Morava river in 1202. After several setbacks under Boril I (1207–1218), Ivan Asen II decisively defeated the Despotate of Epirus in the battle of Klokotnitsa, in which the much smaller Bulgarian army outmaneuvered its enemy. In 1241, the Tsar defeated a Mongol army, fighting under Batu Khan and Subutai.

Terter and Shishman dynasties

The country and the army declined after Ivan Asen II's death. His successors could not cope neither with the external nor with the internal problems. Mongol, Byzantine and Hungarian invasions were combined with separatism among the nobility and several civil wars. In 1277, a peasant named Ivailo rebelled against Emperor Constantine Tikh. In the ensuing battle the Emperor was defeated and slain, and Ivailo proclaimed himself Emperor of Bulgaria in Tarnovo. Although he managed to defeat both the Mongols and the Byzantines, a plot among the nobility forced him to seek refuge among the Mongol Golden Horde, where he was killed in 1280.^[38] The army now numbered less than 10,000 men — it is recorded that Ivailo defeated two Byzantine armies of 5,000 and 10,000 men, and that his troops were outnumbered in both cases.^[39]

After the end of the rebellion of Ivailo, the Bulgarians were no match for the Mongols who plundered the country undisturbed for 20 years. With the reign of Theodore Svetoslav (1300–1321), the situation of the army improved — in 1304 he defeated the Byzantines at Skafida. Under his successor the garrison of Plovdiv numbered 2,000 heavily armed footmen and 1,000 horsemen.^[41] In 1330 Michael III Shishman raised a 15,000-strong army^[42] to face the Serbs but was defeated at the battle of Velbazhd. Two years later the Bulgarian army numbered 11,000 men.^[43]

When the Ottoman Turks invaded Bulgaria and the Balkans in the mid-14th century, the once glorious Bulgarian army was only a shadow of its former self. Feudal disunion and the widespread heretical movements such as Bogomilism, the Adamites or the Varlaamites did not allow the country to maintain a significant force. The Bulgarians relied on their fortified cities and castles for defense, but due to the lack of a common leadership, coordination amongst them was feeble and they were defeated and occupied in detail.

Initially, the Ottoman invasion was not considered as a significant threat by both Bulgarians and Byzantines. For only one decade between 1354 and 1364 the Ottomans conquered virtually the whole of Thrace seizing large cities such as Plovdiv, Beroia, Dianopolis (Yambol) and Adrianople and defeating several small Bulgarian forces.^[44] The centuries-old mistrust between Bulgarians and Byzantines spoiled the negotiations between the two empires for an alliance and even led to the last Byzantine-Bulgarian war in 1364.^[45] In 1371 a large Bulgarian-Serb army under Vukašin Mrnjavčević and Jovan Uglješa, two feudal lords in Macedonia, was annihilated by the Ottomans under Lala Shahin Pasha at Chernomen and soon the Bulgarian Emperor had to admit the defeat and became a vassal to the invaders.^[46] Numerous Bulgarian fortresses in the Rhodope mountains, Sofia valley and eastern Bulgaria were captured one by one over the next twenty years. In 1393 the capital Tarnovo was besieged and seized by the Ottoman Turks and three years later fell Vidin - the last major Bulgarian city. Resistance to the invaders continued until 1422 when the country was fully conquered. The Ottoman invasion was a disaster for the Bulgarian army — the nobility and the leaders of the nation were killed or emigrated and civilians were not allowed to have weapons until the 19th century.

Tactics

The campaigns of the Bulgarian army in early 9th century.

The Bulgarian army employed various military tactics. It relied both on the experience of the soldiers and the peculiarities of the terrain. The Balkan mountains played a significant role in the military history of Bulgaria and facilitated the country's defense against the strong Byzantine army which conveyed the Roman military art in the Middle Ages. Most of the nine campaigns of the ambitious Emperor Constantine V to eliminate the young Bulgarian state, which suffered political crisis, failed in the mountain passes of the Balkan. In 811 the whole Byzantine army was destroyed in the Varbitsa pass and in 12th-13th centuries several other Byzantine forces shared that doom. The Bulgarians maintained many outposts and castles which guarded the passes and were able to locate an invading force and quickly inform the high command about any enemy moves.

Another widely used tactic was to make a false retreat and then suddenly attack the enemy — breaking the lines when in pursuit.^[47] This trick won many victories, most notably at the battle of Adrianople in 1205 against the Crusaders. Sometimes the Bulgarians left a strong cavalry force in reserve which attacked in the sublime moment and tipped the balance in Bulgarians' favour, for instance in the battle of Anchialus in 917.^[18] Ambush was another widely used and very successful strategy especially during the Cometopuli dynasty.

The Bulgarians usually avoided frontal assault and waited the enemy to attack first. After the opponent inevitably breaks his battle formation the Bulgarians would counter-attack with their heavy cavalry. In several battles the Bulgarian troops waited the Byzantines for days until the latter attack — for instance at Marcelae (792) or Versinikia (813) - and scored decisive victories.^[47][49] In one of the rare occasions in which the army made a frontal attack on the enemy, the result was a defeat despite the heavy casualties the enemy suffered - battle of Anchialus (763).^[50] After a successful battle the Bulgarian would pursue the enemy in depth in order to eliminate as much soldiers as possible and not to allow him to reorganize his forces quickly and effectively. For instance after the victory at Ongal in 680 the Byzantines were chased for 150–200 km. After the success at Anchialus in 917 the Byzantines were not given time to prepare their resistance properly and the result was the annihilation of their last forces in the battle of Katasyrtai.

During war the Bulgarians usually sent light cavalry to devastate the enemy lands on a broad front pillaging villages and small towns, burning the crops and taking people and cattle.^[51] During the Second Empire that task was usually assigned to the Cumans. The Bulgarian army was very mobile — for instance prior to the battle of Klokotnitsa for four days it covered a distance three times longer than the Epirote army for a week; in 1332 it covered 230 km for five days.^[43]

Siege equipment

A drawing of a catapult.

The early Bulgarian army was not supplied with strong siege equipment . The Bulgarians used siege machines on a large scale for the first time during the reign of Khan Krum (803-814), when they employed Arab renegades to gain experience. By 814 they possessed a large number of enormous siege machines^[52] - battering rams, ballistas, mangonels, catapults, siege towers, machines against battlements.^[53] They were transported by 5,000 iron-covered carts, hauled by 10,000 oxen.^[54] In addition, after the siege of Mesembria, the Bulgarians captured 36 copper siphons which the Byzantines used to throw the famous Greek fire.

A wide range of siege equipment was also used during the Second Empire.^[55] During the siege of Adrianople in 1207, Emperor Kaloyan had 33 catapults and an engineer corps which was tasked with destroying the city walls.^[56] In the beginning of the 13th century, during the siege of Varna, the Bulgarians constructed an enormous siege tower which was wider than the moat of the fortress.

Foreign and mercenary soldiers

After the Bulgarians conquered the Avar Khanate in 804-805, Avar soldiers, who were now subjects of the Bulgarian crown, were recruited in the army, especially during the campaign against Nicephorus I in 811, when the Byzantines burned down the capital, Pliska.^[57] In the 9th-10th centuries the Bulgarians often resorted to the services of the Pechenegs,^[58] who were probably Bulgarian federates. When the Byzantines stirred the Kievan Rus' up against the Empire, the Bulgarian diplomacy in turn used the Pechenegs against Rus'.^[24][59]

During the Second Empire, foreign and mercenary soldiers became an important part of the Bulgarian army and its tactics. Since the very beginning of the rebellion of Asen and Peter, the light and mobile Cuman cavalry was effectively used against the Byzantines and later the Crusaders. For instance, fourteen thousand of them were used by Kaloyan in the battle of Adrianople.^[60] The Cumans were the empire's most effective military component.^[61] The Cuman leaders entered the ranks of Bulgarian nobility, and some of them received high military or administrative posts in the state.^[62] During the 14th century the Bulgarian army increasingly relied on foreign mercenaries, which included Western knights, Mongols, Ossetians or came from vassal Wallachia. Both Michael III Shishman and Ivan Alexander had a 3,000-strong Mongol cavalry detachment in their armies.^[43][63] In the 1350s, Emperor Ivan Alexander even hired Ottoman bands, as did the Byzantine Emperor. Russians were also hired as mercenaries.^[61]

Bulgarian–Arabian wars

King Tervel crowned “The Savior of Europe” by the Pope, after crushing the Arab Umayyad army at the Siege of Constantinople

Battle	Year	Bulgarian Commander	Arabian Umayyad Caliphate Commander	Result
Bulgar–Arab War	716	Tervel	Maslama Malik	Bulgarian victory
Siege of Constantinople	717	Tervel	Maslama Malik	Bulgarian victory
Arab Slaughter of Constantinople	718	Tervel	Umar ibn Hubayra	Bulgarian victory

Bulgarian–Byzantine wars

Khan Krum leads Bulgaria to victory at the Battle of Pliska in 811

Undefeated King Simeon the Great victorious at the Battle of Bulgarophygon in 896

The Bulgarian Army Smothers the Byzantines in The Battle of Achelous in 917

Emperor Samuil The Invincible crushes King Basil II's Byzantine army at the Battle of the Gates of Trajan in 996

King Basil II The Bulgar Slayer victoriously avenges his Byzantine army at the Battle of Kleidion in 1014

Battle	Year	Bulgarian Commander	Byzantine Commander	Result
Battle of Ongal	680	Asparukh	Constantine IV	Bulgarian victory
Battle of Anchialus	708	Tervel	Justinian II	Bulgarian victory
Battle of Marcellae	756	Vinekh	Constantine V	Byzantine victory
Battle of the Rishki Pass	759	Vinekh	Constantine V	Bulgarian victory
Battle of Anchialus	763	Telets	Constantine V	Byzantine victory
Battle of Berzitia	774	Telerig	Constantine V	Byzantine victory
Battle of Marcellae	792	Kardam	Constantine VI	Bulgarian victory
Siege of Serdica	809	Krum	Constantine V	Bulgarian victory
Battle of Pliska	811	Krum	Nicephorus I	Bulgarian victory
Battle of Versinikia	813	Krum	Michael I Rangabe	Bulgarian victory
Siege of Adrianople	813	Krum	Leo Phokas	Bulgarian victory
Battle of Burdizon	814	Omurtag	Leo Phokas	Byzantine victory
Battle of Kedouktos	822	Omurtag	Thomas I	Byzantine victory
Battle of Boulgarophygon	896	Simeon I	Leo Katakalon	Bulgarian victory
Battle of Achelous	917	Simeon I	Leo Phokas	Bulgarian victory
Battle of Katasyrtai	917	Simeon I	Leo Phokas	Bulgarian victory
Battle of Pegae	922	Theodore Sigritsa	Pothos Argyros	Bulgarian victory
Battle of the Gates of Trajan	986	Samuil	Basil II	Bulgarian victory
Battle of Salonica	996	Samuil	Gregory Taronites	Bulgarian victory
Battle of Spercheios	996	Samuil	Nikephoros Ouranos	Byzantine victory
Battle of Skopie	1004	Samuil	Basil II	Byzantine victory
Battle of Kreta	1009	Samuil	Basil II	Byzantine victory
Battle of Thessalonica	1014	Nestoritsa	Botaneiates	Byzantine victory
Battle of Kleidion	1014	Samuil	Basil II	Byzantine victory
Battle of Strumitsa	1014	Gavril Radomir	Botaneiates	Bulgarian victory
Battle of Bitola	1015	Ivats	George Gonitsiates	Bulgarian victory
Battle of Setina	1017	Ivan Vladislav	Basil II	Byzantine victory
Battle of Dyrrhachium	1018	Ivan Vladislav	Niketas Pegonites	Byzantine victory
Battle of Thessalonica	1040	Peter II Delyan	Michael IV	Bulgarian victory
Battle of Thessalonica	1040	Alusian	Michael IV	Byzantine victory
Battle of Ostrovo	1041	Peter II Delyan	Michael IV	Byzantine victory
Uprising of Voiteh	1070	Peter III	Damianos	Bulgarian victory
Defeat of Voiteh	1071	Peter III	Damianos	Byzantine victory
Siege of Lovech	1190	Ivan Asen I	Isaac II Angelos	Bulgarian victory
Battle of Tryavna	1190	Ivan Asen I	Isaac II Angelos	Bulgarian victory
Battle of Arcadiopolis	1194	Ivan Asen I	Basil Vatatzes	Bulgarian victory
Battle of Serres	1196	Ivan Asen I	Isaac	Bulgarian victory
Siege of Varna	1201	Kaloyan	Isaac	Bulgarian victory
Battle of Devina	1279	Ivailo	Murin	Bulgarian victory
Battle of Skafida	1304	Theodore Svetoslav	Michael IX	Bulgarian victory
Battle of Rusokastro	1332	Ivan Alexander	Andronikos III	Bulgarian victory

Bulgarian–Crimean wars

Battle	Year	Bulgarian Commander	Crimean Tatar Khanate Commander	Result
First Tatar Invasion	1241	Kaliman I	Tatarin	Bulgarian victory
Second Siege of Nessebar	1244	Kaliman I	Tatarin	Bulgarian victory
Tatar Invasion of Dobruja	1414	Constantine II	Yeremferden	Crimean victory
Final Tatar Banishment	1415	Constantine II	Yeremferden	Bulgarian victory

Bulgarian–Croatian wars

Bulgaria conquering a majority of the Croatian territory along with bordering Charlemagne's Frankish Empire in 814

Battle	Year	Bulgarian Commander	Croatian Commander	Result
First Bulgar–Croat War	854	Boris I	Trpimir	Truce
Battle of the Bosnian Highlands	926	Alogobotur	Tomislav	Croatian victory
Second Bulgar–Croat War	927	Simeon I	Tomislav	Bulgarian victory
Third Bulgar–Croat War-Alliance	1000	Samuil	Svetoslav	Bulgarian victory

Bulgarian–Cuman wars

Battle	Year	Bulgarian Commander	Cumanian Commander	Result
First Cumanian Conflict	1140	Gradihna	Sevinch	Bulgarian victory
Second Cumanian Conflict	1145	Radoslav	Sevinch	Bulgarian victory

Bulgarian–Frankish wars

Battle	Year	Bulgarian Commander	Frankish Commander	Result
Bulgar–Frankish War	827	Omurtag	Louis the Pious	Bulgarian victory
Naval Battle of the Danube	827	Omurtag	Louis the Pious	Bulgarian victory
Bulgar–Frankish War	828	Omurtag	Louis the Pious	Bulgarian victory
Naval Battle of the Drava	828	Omurtag	Louis the Pious	Bulgarian victory
Bulgar–Frankish Alliance	829	Omurtag	Louis the Pious	Bulgarian victory

Bulgarian–Genoan wars

Battle	Year	Bulgarian Commander	Genoan Commander	Result
First Battle of Dobruja	1379	Dobrotitsa	Luciano Doria	Bulgarian victory
Second Battle of Dobruja	1382	Dobrotitsa	Nicolò Guarco	Bulgarian victory
Battle of Pera	1387	Ivanko	Nicolò Guarco	Truce

Bulgarian–Hungarian wars

The Bulgarian army flees to Silistra after a Hungarian defeat in 894

After all of Europe pleaded God for mercy from the ravaging Magyar Hungarians, a sickened King Simeon answered the call by brutally slaughtering many of the Magyars at the Battle of Southern Buh. ultimately forcing the Magyars to permanently settle in Central Europe

Battle	Year	Bulgarian Commander	Hungarian Commander	Result
Bulgar–Hungar wars	862	Boris I	Rastislav	Bulgarian victory
Bulgar–Hungar wars	883	Boris I	Svatoplak	Bulgarian victory
Bulgar–Hungar wars	892	Boris I	Svatoplak	Bulgarian victory
Bulgar–Hungar wars	893	Boris I	Arpad	Hungarian victory
Bulgar–Hungar wars	894	Boris I	Arpad	Hungarian victory
Bulgar–Hungar wars	895	Simeon I	Arpad And Levente	Bulgarian victory
Battle of Southern Buh	896	Simeon I	Arpad And Levente	Bulgarian victory
Bulgar–Hungar wars	932	Peter I	Bogat	Hungarian victory
Bulgar–Hungar wars	934	Peter I	Zombor	Hungarian victory
Battle of the Northern Danube	980	Ahtum	Stephen I	Hungarian victory
Bulgar–Hungar wars	1202	Kaloyan	Emeric	Hungarian victory
Bulgar–Hungar wars	1203	Kaloyan	Emeric	Bulgarian victory
Battle of the Vidin	1365	Ivan Stratsimir	Louis I	Hungarian victory
Bulgar–Hungar wars	1367	Ivan Alexander	Louis I	Bulgarian victory
Final Defeat of Hungaria	1369	Ivan Stratsimir	Louis I	Bulgarian victory

Bulgarian–Khazar wars

Battle	Year	Bulgarian Commander	Khazar Khaganate Commander	Result
Khazar Invasion Old Great Bulgaria	662	Kubrat	Ziebel	Khazar victory
Fall of Old Great Bulgaria	665	Kubrat	Böri Shad	Khazar victory
First Northern Bulgar Invasion	668	Asparukh	Kaban	Bulgarian victory
Second Northern Bulgar Invasion	670	Asparukh	Kaban	Bulgarian victory
Battle of Danube & Death of Aspurukh	701	Asparukh	Busir	Khazar victory
Destruction of Southern Khazaria	702	Tervel	Busir	Bulgarian victory
Final Khazar Banishment	825	Omurtag	Bulan	Bulgarian victory

Bulgarian–Kievan Rus wars

The Rus' invasion being repulsed by a Byzantine–Bulgarian alliance

Battle	Year	Bulgarian Commander	Rus Commander	Result
Battle of Silistra	968	Peter I	Sviatoslav I	Rus victory
Bulgar–Rus wars	968	Boris I	Sviatoslav I	Rus victory
Battle of Pereyaslavets	969	Boris I	Sviatoslav I	Bulgarian victory
Bulgar–Rus Northern Alliance	970	Boris I	Sviatoslav I	Rus victory
Siege of Dorostolon	971	Boris II	Sviatoslav I	Bulgarian victory
Rus Banishment	997	Samuil	Sviatoslav I	Bulgarian victory

Bulgarian–Latin wars

Tsarevets Castle, capital of Bulgaria under King Kaloyan The Crusader Slayer. where the Bulgarians brutally annihilated the 4th Crusade, capturing Latin Crusader King Baldwin I in the process and locking him in his tower till his death in 1205

Battle	Year	Bulgarian Commander	Latin Crusader Commander	Result
Battle of Adrianople	1205	Kaloyan	Baldwin I	Bulgarian victory
Battle of Serres	1205	Kaloyan	Henry I	Bulgarian victory
Battle of Rusion	1206	Kaloyan	Thierry de Termonde	Bulgarian victory
Battle of Rodosto	1206	Kaloyan	Henry I	Bulgarian victory
Battle of Messinopolis	1207	Boril	Boniface	Bulgarian victory
Battle of Beroia	1207	Boril	Henry I	Bulgarian victory
Battle of Philippopolis	1208	Boril	Henry I	Latin victory
Siege of Constantinople	1235	Ivan Asen II	John of Brienne	Two Year Truce

Bulgarian–Mongol wars

Battle	Year	Bulgarian Commander	Mongol Commander	Result
Battle of Samara Bend	1223	Gabdula Chelbir	Genghis Khan	Bulgarian victory
Bulgar–Mongol War	1241	Ivan Asen II	Batu Khan	Bulgarian victory
Bulgar–Mongol War	1242	Kaliman Asen I	Batu Khan	Bulgarian victory
Bulgar–Mongol War	1271	Kaliman Asen II	Nogai Khan	Mongol victory
Bulgar–Mongol War	1278	Ivailo	Nogai Khan	Bulgarian victory
Siege of Silistra	1279	Ivailo	Nogai Khan	Bulgarian victory
Bulgar–Mongol War	1299	George I	Nogai Khan	Mongol victory
First Mongol Banishment	1300	Theo Svetoslav	Toqta	Bulgarian victory
Bulgar–Mongol War	1332	Ivan Stefan	Uzbeg Khan	Bulgarian victory
Final Banishment of Mongol Horde	1341	Ivan Stefan	Uzbeg Khan	Bulgarian victory

Bulgarian–Nicean wars

Map of the numerous Latin kingdoms in result of the Latin Crusader sack of Constantinople

Battle	Year	Bulgarian Commander	Nicean Commander	Result
Siege of Constantinople	1235	Ivan Asen II	John of Brienne	Two Year Truce
Battle of Adrianople	1254	Micheal I	Theodore II Lascaris	Nicean victory
First Battle of Northern Anatolia	1256	Micheal I	Theodore II Lascaris	Bulgarian victory
Second Battle of Northern Anatolia	1257	Micheal I	Theodore II Lascaris	Bulgarian victory

Bulgarian–Ottoman wars

Bulgarian Duke Momchil The Ottoman Obliterator (Turk Destroyer) victoriously crushing the Ottoman offense a year after his famous destruction of the Ottoman fleet in the naval massacre of Portogalos in 1344

The Bulgarian Empire, split into its numerous Bulgar states, on the eve of the century-long war with the Ottoman Turks

The defeat at the Battle of Nicopolis in 1396, was the major turning point in the near-hundred-year war with the Ottoman Empire

Battle	Year	Bulgarian Commander	Ottoman Commander	Result
Naval Massacre of Porto Galo	1344	Momchil	Murad I	Bulgarian victory
Rhodope Bulgar Ambush	1345	Momchil	Murad I	Bulgarian victory
Battle of Peritor	1345	Momchil	Umur Beg	Ottoman victory
Bulgar–Ottoman wars	1352	Ivan Alexander	Umur Beg	Ottoman victory
Bulgar–Ottoman wars	1354	Ivan Alexander	Umur Beg	Ottoman victory
Battle of Ihtiman	1355	Michael Asen	Umur Beg	Bulgarian victory
Bulgar–Ottoman wars	1359	Michael Asen	Umur Beg	Ottoman victory
Bulgar–Ottoman wars	1353	Michael Asen	Umur Beg	Ottoman victory
Bulgar–Ottoman wars	1364	Michael Asen	Umur Beg	Bulgarian victory
Bulgar–Ottoman wars	1371	Ivan Shishman	Murad I	Ottoman victory
Bulgar–Ottoman Peace Treaty	1373	Ivan Shishman	Murad I	Ottoman victory
First Siege of Rakovista	1374	Ivan Shishman	Davud Pasha	Bulgarian victory
Bulgar–Ottoman wars	1375	Ivan Shishman	Davud Pasha	Bulgarian victory
Siege of Tsepina	1375	Ivan Shishman	Davud Pasha	Bulgarian victory
Second Siege of Rakovista	1375	Ivan Shishman	Davud Pasha	Ottoman victory
Siege of Batkun	1376	Ivan Shishman	Davud Pasha	Ottoman victory
Ottoman Rhodope Invasion	1376	Ivan Shishman	Lala Shahin Pasha	Bulgarian victory
Battle of Zarenitza	1376	Ivan Shishman	Lala Shahin Pasha	Bulgarian victory
Battle of Zagrad	1376	Ivan Shishman	Lala Shahin Pasha	Bulgarian victory
Battle of Gradishte	1377	Ivan Shishman	Lala Shahin Pasha	Bulgarian victory
Battle of Chiltepes	1378	Ivan Shishman	Sara Baba	Bulgarian victory
Battle of Karakulas	1378	Ivan Shishman	Sara Baba	Bulgarian victory
Battle of Imeretdere	1379	Ivan Shishman	Sara Baba	Bulgarian victory
Massacre of Momina Voda	1380	Ivan Shishman	Sara Baba	Bulgarian victory
Siege of Zlatitsa Valley	1380	Ivan Stratsimir	Murad I	Ottoman victory
First Siege of Sofia	1381	Ban Yanuka	Lala Shahin Pasha	Bulgarian victory
Second Siege of Sofia	1382	Ban Yanuka	Murad I	Ottoman victory
Battle of Pirot	1384	Ivan Shishman	Murad I	Ottoman victory
Battle of Naissus	1386	Ivan Shishman	Murad I	Ottoman victory
Battle of Plocnik	1387	Ivan Stratsimir	Lala Shahin Pasha	Bulgarian victory
Battle of Ovech	1387	Ivan Stratsimir	Lala Shahin Pasha	Ottoman victory
Siege of Shumen	1388	Ivan Stratsimir	Lala Shahin Pasha	Ottoman victory
Battle of Madara	1389	Ivan Stratsimir	Lala Shahin Pasha	Ottoman victory
Siege of Varna	1389	Ivan Stratsimir	Murad I	Bulgarian victory
First Siege of Tutrakan	1390	Ivan Stratsimir	Murad I	Bulgarian victory
Second Siege of Tutrakan	1391	Ivan Stratsimir	Lala Shahin Pasha	Ottoman victory
First Siege of Nicopolis	1392	Ivan Shishman	Murad I	Bulgarian victory
Second Siege of Nicopolis	1392	Ivan Shishman	Bayezid I	Ottoman victory
Siege of Tarnovo	1393	Evtimiy	Süleyman Çelebi	Ottoman victory
Capture of Vidin	1396	Ivan Stratsimir	Bayezid I	Bulgarian victory
Ottoman Retake of Vidin	1398	Ivan Stratsimir	Bayezid I	Ottoman victory
Anti-Ottoman Revolt	1413	Constantine II	Mehmed I	Bulgarian victory
Final Fall of Bulgarian Empire	1422	Constantine II	Murad II	Ottoman victory

Bulgarian–Pecheneg wars

Bulgaria bordering the vast Pecheneg Khanate before a decisive Bulgarian victory led by King Boris II

Battle	Year	Bulgarian Commander	Pecheneg Khanate Commander	Result
First Pecheneg Invasion	967	Peter I	Kurya	Pecheneg victory
Second Pecheneg Invasion	969	Boris II	Kurya	Bulgarian victory
Third Pecheneg Invasion	970	Boris II	Kurya	Bulgarian victory
Final Pecheneg Banishment	971	Boris II	Kurya	Bulgarian victory
Battle of Levounion	1091	Peter III	Emir Chaka	Bulgarian victory

Bulgarian–Savoyan wars

Battle	Year	Bulgarian Commander	Duchy of Savoy Commander	Result
First Black Sea Naval Invasion	1365	Ivan Alexander	Amadeus VI	Savoyan victory
Capture of Varna	1366	Ivan Alexander	Amadeus VI	Savoyan victory
Second Black Sea Naval Invasion	1366	Ivan Alexander	Amadeus VI	Bulgarian victory
Third Black Sea Naval Invasion	1367	Ivan Alexander	Amadeus VI	Bulgarian victory
Destruction of the Fleet of Savoy	1370	Ivan Alexander	Amadeus VI	Bulgarian victory

Bulgarian–Seljuk wars

Battle	Year	Bulgarian Commander	Seljuk Sultanate Commander	Result
First Battle of Manzikert	1054	Peter II	Tughril	Bulgarian victory
Second Battle of Manzikert	1071	Peter II	Alp Arslan	Seljuk victory
Second Siege of Nicea	1113	Peter III	Kilij Arslan I	Bulgarian victory
Battle of Antioch	1211	Ivan Asen II	Kaykhusraw I	Bulgarian victory

Bulgarian–Serbian wars

The invincible Bulgarian Empire in the process of conquering a majority of the Serbian kKingdom

The Serbs pleading the Byzantines for a formed alliance against the unstoppable Bulgarian state, before being conquered for a second time

Battle	Year	Bulgarian Commander	Serbian Commander	Result
Bulgar–Serb War	839	Omurtag	Vlastimir	Bulgarian victory
Bulgar–Serb War	842	Presian	Vlastimir	Serbian victory
First Bulgar–Serb Alliance	853	Vladimir-Rasate	Mutimir	Serbian victory
Bulgar–Serb War	917	Simeon I	Petar	Bulgarian victory
Bulgar–Serb War	921	Simeon I	Pavle	Bulgarian victory
Bulgar–Serb War	922	Zaharija	Pavle	Bulgarian victory
Bulgar–Serb War	924	Marmais and Sigritsa	Zaharija	Serbian victory
Full Conquer of Serbia	925	Simeon I	Zaharija	Bulgarian victory
Bulgar–Serb War	998	Samuil	Jovan Vladimir	Bulgarian victory
Bulgar–Serb War	1202	Kaloyan	Emeric	Serbian victory
Bulgar–Serb War	1203	Kaloyan	Emeric	Bulgarian victory
Bulgar–Serb War	1290	Darmen and Kudelin	Stefan Dragutin	Bulgarian victory
Bulgar–Serb War	1291	Darmen and Kudelin	Stefan Milutin	Serbian victory
Battle of Velbazhd	1330	Michael Shishman	Stefan Dečanski	Serbian victory
Second Bulgar–Serb Alliance	1331	Ivan Stefan	Stefan Dečanski	Bulgarian victory

Bulgarian–Thessalonician wars

Battle	Year	Bulgarian Commander	Thessalonician Commander	Result
Battle of Klokotnitsa	1230	Ivan Asen II	Theodore Komnenos	Bulgarian victory
Battle of Southern Thrace	1232	Ivan Asen II	Theodore Komnenos	Bulgarian victory

Bulgarian–Trebizond wars

Battle	Year	Bulgarian Commander	Trebizond Commander	Result
First Battle of Northern Anatolia	1270	Dobrotitsa	Andronikos III	Bulgarian victory
Second Battle of Northern Anatolia	1280	Dobrotitsa	Andronikos III	Bulgarian victory

Bulgarian–Turkic wars

Battle	Year	Bulgarian Commander	Gokturk Khaganate Commander	Result
First Rebellion-Old Great Bulgaria Creation	622	Kubrat	Ilterish Qaghan	Bulgarian victory
Final Gokturk Repulsion	632	Kubrat	Ilterish Qaghan	Bulgarian victory

Bulgarian–Venetian wars

Battle	Year	Bulgarian Commander	Venetian Commander	Result
First Siege of Nessebar	1257	Michael II	Reniero Zeno	Bulgarian victory
Second Siege of Nessebar	1260	Constantine I	Reniero Zeno	Bulgarian victory

Bulgarian–Wallachian wars

Bulgaria reconquering lands held by the Ottomans and Byzantines, before a Wallachian attack from the north in 1384

Battle	Year	Bulgarian Commander	Wallachian Commander	Result
Bulgar–Wallachian War	1384	Ivan Sratsimir	Dan I	Bulgarian victory
Bulgar–Wallachian War	1385	Ivan Shishman	Dan I	Bulgarian victory
Bulgar–Wallachian War	1386	Ivan Shishman	Dan I	Bulgarian victory

See also

• Medieval warfare
• Medieval Bulgarian navy
• Byzantine army
• Medieval Serbian army

Notes

• Note that the works Byzantine authors are usually from their Bulgarian edition ГИБИ (Гръцки Извори за Българската История - Greek Sources for the Bulgarian History)

References

• (in English) Lang, D. M. (1976). The Bulgarians from Pagan Times to the Ottoman Conquest. Southampton: Thames & Hudson. 
• (in English) Lowe, Stephen. Byzantium’s Neighbours: 1. The Bulgarians. Archived from the original on 2009-10-27. 
• (in Bulgarian) Pavlov, P. (2005). "Commanders and allies Cumans, Tatars and Alans in the Second Bulgarian Empire". Rebels and adventurers in Medieval Bulgaria (in Bulgarian). Varna: LiterNet. 
• (in English) Runciman, Steven (1930). A history of the First Bulgarian Empire. London: G. Bell & Sons. 
• (in Bulgarian) Zlatarski, Vasil (1971). History of the Bulgarian state in the Middle Ages: Part 1 (in Bulgarian). Sofia: IInd edition. 
• (in Bulgarian) Zlatarski, Vasil (1971). History of the Bulgarian state in the Middle Ages: Part 2 (in Bulgarian). Sofia: IInd edition. 
• (in English) Bulgaria, retrieved on 16 September 2009
• (in Bulgarian) Annex 9: The siege machines during the reign of Khan Krum

Topics on the Bulgarian Empire
State	Military	Culture
Origin Bulgars South Slavs Old Great Bulgaria States First Bulgarian Empire (681–1018) Second Bulgarian Empire (1185–1396/1422) De facto independent Bulgarian states from the Second Empire Tsardom of Vidin (1371–1396/1422) Despotate of Dobruja (Principality of Karvuna) (1337/1346–1413) Administration Aristocracy • Great Boyar Council • Council of Preslav Capitals: Pliska (681–893) • Preslav (893–972) • Skopje (972–992) • Ohrid (992–1018) • Tarnovo (1185–1393) • Nicopolis (1393–1396) • Vidin (1393–1396) Important rulers First Bulgarian Empire Asparukh • Tervel • Krum • Omurtag • Boris I • Simeon I • Peter I • Samuel Second Bulgarian Empire Ivan Asen I • Kaloyan • Ivan Asen II • Konstantin Tih • Michael Shishman • Ivan Alexander Economy Bulgarian coinage Bulgarian economy	Bulgarian army Bulgarian navy Conflicts Byzantine–Bulgarian wars Croatian–Bulgarian wars Bulgarian–Hungarian wars Bulgarian–Latin wars Bulgarian–Ottoman wars Bulgarian–Serbian wars Major battles First Bulgarian Empire Battle of Ongal • Siege of Constantinople • Battle of Marcellae • Battle of Pliska • Battle of Southern Buh • Battle of Achelous • Battle of the Gates of Trajan • Battle of Kleidion • Battle of Dyrrhachium Second Bulgarian Empire Battle of Tryavna • Battle of Adrianople • Battle of Klokotnitsa • Battle of Skafida • Battle of Velbazhd • Battle of Rusokastro • Battle of Chernomen • Siege of Tarnovo • Battle of Nicopolis Major uprisings Uprising of Peter Delyan Uprising of Georgi Voiteh Uprising of Asen and Peter Uprising of Ivaylo Uprising of Konstantin and Fruzhin	Literature Bulgarian literature Glagolitic script Early Cyrillic alphabet Cyrillic script Old Church Slavonic Preslav Literary School Ohrid Literary School Royal charters Prominent writers and scholars: Saint Naum • Clement of Ohrid • Chernorizets Hrabar • Constantine of Preslav • John the Exarch • Evtimiy of Tarnovo • Gregory Tsamblak Art and architecture Architecture of the Tarnovo Artistic School Painting of the Tarnovo Artistic School Famous examples: Madara Rider • Great Basilica • Round Church • Holy Forty Martyrs Church • Boyana Church • Tsarevets • Baba Vida • Cherven Religion Tengrism Slavic Paganism Christianisation Eastern Orthodox Bulgarian Orthodox Archbishopric of Ohrid Roman Catholic Bogomilism
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