List of Global Boundary Stratotype Sections and Points

This is a list of Global Boundary Stratotype Sections and Points. Since 1977, Global Boundary Stratotype Sections and Points (abbreviated GSSPs) are internationally agreed upon reference points on stratigraphic sections of rock which define the lower boundaries of stages on the geologic time scale. They are selected by the International Commission on Stratigraphy based on multiple factors, but their accessibility and the degree to which they are representative of the same boundary on sections worldwide are among the most important.

Since GSSPs require well-preserved sections of rock without interruptions in sedimentation, and since most are defined by different stages of animal life, defining them becomes progressively more difficult as one goes further back in time.

Organization of this list

This list is divided first into the geologic eras of the Phanerozoic (the Cenozoic, the Mesozoic, and the Paleozoic) and then into the geologic periods of each era. Each period is marked below the era bar on top of its subdivided epochs and stages. Each stage is assigned an age in mya, an acronym for million years ago, which is the age at which it began. Most of these ages are derived from astronomical cycles in sediments, magnetic data, biostratigraphic data, and radiometric dating methods. The GSSP assigned to each stage is that stage's lower boundary and oldest point.

Ages are given in "million year ago" (mya). They are obtained with different radiometric dating methods depending on the type of rock and its age. Ages that have a tilde (~) prefix are approximate ages for GSSPs that have not been defined or not been accurately dated.

The Status column has a "golden spike" for every GSSP which has been formally agreed by the ICS. Those without have only candidate sections which have not yet been formally ratified. The clock stands for times that are currently defined only by an age.

The "Defining markers" column lists the evidence in the rock used to define the boundary. (Ideally, these are applicable in rock sections worldwide.) Most of the boundaries rely on the fossil record (biologic), paleomagnetic data (magnetic), and/or climate data determined by carbon and oxygen isotopes.

List

Cenozoic

Quaternary

Epoch Stage Age (mya) Status GSSP location Defining markers Geographic Coordinates References
Holocene 0.0117
NGRIP2 ice core,

Greenland

 75°06′00″N 42°19′12″W / 75.1000°N 42.3200°W / 75.1000; -42.3200 [1]
Pleistocene
Tarantian 0.126 Amsterdam-Terminal borehole,

Netherlands

 52°22′45″N 4°54′52″E / 52.3792°N 4.9144°E / 52.3792; 4.9144 [2]
Ionian 0.781 Candidate sections: - [3]
Calabrian 1.8
Vrica Section,

Calabria, Italy

 39°02′19″N 17°08′05″E / 39.0385°N 17.1348°E / 39.0385; 17.1348 [4]
Gelasian 2.58
Monte San Nicola Section,

Gela, Sicily, Italy

 37°08′49″N 14°12′13″E / 37.1469°N 14.2035°E / 37.1469; 14.2035 [5]

Neogene

Epoch Stage Age (mya) Status GSSP location Defining markers Geographic Coordinates References
Pliocene
Piacenzian 3.6
Punta Piccola Section,

Porto Empedocle, Sicily, Italy

 37°17′20″N 13°29′36″E / 37.2889°N 13.4933°E / 37.2889; 13.4933 [6]
Zanclean 5.333
Heraclea Minoa section

Heraclea Minoa, Cattolica Eraclea, Sicily, Italy

 37°23′30″N 13°16′50″E / 37.3917°N 13.2806°E / 37.3917; 13.2806 [7]
Miocene
Messinian 7.246
Oued Akrech section,

Rabat, Morocco

 33°56′13″N 6°48′45″W / 33.9369°N 6.8125°W / 33.9369; -6.8125 [8]
Tortonian 11.63
Monte dei Corvi Beach section,

Ancona, Italy

 43°35′12″N 13°34′10″E / 43.5867°N 13.5694°E / 43.5867; 13.5694 [9]
Serravallian 13.82
Ras il Pellegrin section,

Fomm ir-Riħ Bay, Malta
  • Magnetic: Within magnetic polarity chronozone C5ABr.
  • Biologic: Below first appearance of Sphenolithus heteromorphus (Haptophyte)
  • Climatic: Mi3b isotopic event (Global cooling episode).
 35°54′50″N 14°20′10″E / 35.9139°N 14.3361°E / 35.9139; 14.3361 [10]
Langhian 15.97 Candidate sections: - [3]
Burdigalian 20.44 Candidate sections:
  • Astronomically tuned ODP core (e.g. Ceara Rise, Leg 154)
 - [3]
Aquitanian 23.03
Lemme-Carrosio Section,

Carrosio, Italy

 44°39′32″N 8°50′11″E / 44.6589°N 8.8364°E / 44.6589; 8.8364 [11]

Paleogene

Epoch Stage Age (mya) Status GSSP location Defining markers Geographic Coordinates References
Oligocene
Chattian 28.1 Candidate section:
  • Potentially extinction of planktonic foraminifer Chiloguembelina (Base of Foram Zone P21b); or an isotopic/climatic event
 - -
Rupelian 33.9
Massignano quarry section,

Massignano, Ancona, Italy

 43°31′58″N 13°36′04″E / 43.5328°N 13.6011°E / 43.5328; 13.6011 [12]
Eocene
Priabonian 37.8 Alano section,

Piave river, Venetian Prealps, Belluno, Italy
  • Biologic: Near first appearance of Chiasmolithus oamaruensis (Haptophyte).
 - -
Bartonian 41.2 Contessa highway section

Gubbio, Central Apennines, Italy
  • Biologic: Near Extinction of Reticulofenestra reticulata (Haptophyte)
 - -
Lutetian 47.8
Gorrondatxe sea-cliff section,

Western Pyrenees, Basque Country, Spain

 43°22′47″N 3°00′51″W / 43.3796°N 3.0143°W / 43.3796; -3.0143 [13]
Ypresian 56
Dababiya section,

Luxor, Egypt
  • Climatic: Base of negative Carbon Isotope Excursion (CIE).
 25°30′00″N 32°31′52″E / 25.5000°N 32.5311°E / 25.5000; 32.5311 [14][15]
Paleocene
Thanetian 59.2
Zumaia Section,

Basque Country, Spain
  • Magnetic: Base of magnetic polarity chronozone C26n.
 43°17′59″N 2°15′39″W / 43.2996°N 2.2609°W / 43.2996; -2.2609 [16]
Selandian 61.6
Zumaia Section,

Basque Country, Spain
  • Chemical: Onset of sea-level drop and carbon isotope shift.
  • Magnetic: 30 precession cycles after the top of magnetic polarity Chron 27n
 43°17′57″N 2°15′40″W / 43.2992°N 2.2610°W / 43.2992; -2.2610 [16]
Danian 66
El Kef Section,

El Kef, Tunisia

 36°09′13″N 8°38′55″E / 36.1537°N 8.6486°E / 36.1537; 8.6486 [17]

Mesozoic

Cretaceous

Epoch Stage Age (mya) Status GSSP location Defining markers Geographic Coordinates References
Upper
Maastrichtian 72.1
Grande Carrière quarry,

Landes, France

 43°40′46″N 1°06′48″W / 43.6795°N 1.1133°W / 43.6795; -1.1133 [18]
Campanian 83.6 Candidate sections: - [3]
Santonian 86.3
Olazagutia, Spain - [3]
Coniacian 89.8 Candidate sections: - [3]
Turonian 93.9
Rock Canyon,

Colorado, United States

 38°16′56″N 104°43′39″W / 38.2822°N 104.7275°W / 38.2822; -104.7275 [19]
Cenomanian 100.5
Mont Risoux,

Hautes-Alpes, France

 44°23′33″N 5°30′43″E / 44.3925°N 5.5119°E / 44.3925; 5.5119 [20]
Lower
Albian 113 Candidate section:
  • France

Candidates:

  • Haptophyte FAD of Praediscosphaera columnata (= P. cretacea of some earlier studies)
  • Carbon-isotope excursion (black-shale episode)
  • Ammonite
 - -
Aptian 125 Candidate section: - -
Barremian 129.4 Candidate section: - -
Hauterivian 132.9 Candidate section: - -
Valanginian 139.8 Candidates sections: - -
Berriasian 145 Candidate section:

Candidates:

  • Magnetic—base of Chron M18r
  • Base of Calpionellid zone B

Jurassic

Epoch Stage Age (mya) Status GSSP location Defining markers Geographic Coordinates References
Upper
Tithonian 152.1 Candidate sections:
  • Magnetic: Base of magnetic polarity chronozone M22An.
  • Biologic: Near first appearance of Hybonoticeras hybonotum (Ammonite).
  • Biologic: First appearance of genus Gravesia (Ammonite).
 - -
Kimmeridgian 157.3 Candidate section:
  • Biologic: First appearance of Pictonia baylei (Ammonite).
 57°36′00″N 6°12′00″W / 57.6000°N 6.2000°W / 57.6000; -6.2000 -
Oxfordian 163.5 Candidate sections: - -
Middle
Callovian 166.1 Candidate sections: - -
Bathonian 168.3
Ravin du Bès, Bas-Auran, Alpes de Haute, France
  • Biologic: First appearance of Gonolkites convergen (Ammonite).
 43°57′38″N 6°18′55″E / 43.9606°N 6.3153°E / 43.9606; 6.3153 [22]
Bajocian 170.3
Cabo Mondego, Portugal 40°11′57″N 8°54′15″W / 40.1992°N 8.9042°W / 40.1992; -8.9042 [23]
Aalenian 174.1
Fuentelsaz, Spain
  • Biologic: First appearance of Leioceras opalinum and Leioceras lineatum
  • Biologic: First appearance of genus Leioceras (Ammonite).
 41°10′15″N 1°50′00″W / 41.1708°N 1.8333°W / 41.1708; -1.8333 [24]
Lower
Toarcian 182.7 Peniche, Portugal
  • Biologic: Near first appearance of Eodactylites fauna (Ammonite).
  • Biologic: Coincides with Protogrammoceras paltus horizon of NW-Europe.
 - -
Pliensbachian 190.8
Robin Hood's Bay, Yorkshire, England 54°24′25″N 0°29′51″W / 54.4069°N 0.4975°W / 54.4069; -0.4975 [25]
Sinemurian 199.3
East Quantoxhead, West Somerset, England
  • Biologic: First appearance of the Vermiceras quantoxense, Vermiceras palmeri (Ammonite).
 51°11′27″N 3°14′11″W / 51.1909°N 3.2364°W / 51.1909; -3.2364 [26]
Hettangian 201.3
Kuhjoch section, Karwendel mountains, Northern Calcareous Alps, Austria 47°29′02″N 11°31′50″E / 47.4839°N 11.5306°E / 47.4839; 11.5306

Triassic

Epoch Stage Age (mya) Status GSSP location Defining markers Geographic Coordinates References
Upper
Rhaetian 208.5 Candidate sections: - -
Norian 227 Candidate sections: - -
Carnian 237
Prati di Stuores, Dolomites, Italy 46°31′37″N 11°55′49″E / 46.5269°N 11.9303°E / 46.5269; 11.9303 [27]
Middle
Ladinian 242
Bagolino, Lombardian pre-Alps, Italy 45°49′09″N 10°28′16″E / 45.8193°N 10.4710°E / 45.8193; 10.4710 [28]
Anisian 247.2 Candidate sections: 45°04′27″N 28°48′08″E / 45.0742°N 28.8022°E / 45.0742; 28.8022
Lower
Olenekian 251.2 Candidate sections: 31°57′55″N 78°01′29″E / 31.9654°N 78.0246°E / 31.9654; 78.0246
Induan 252.17
Meishan, Zhejiang, China 31°04′47″N 119°42′21″E / 31.0798°N 119.7058°E / 31.0798; 119.7058

Paleozoic

Permian

Epoch Stage Age (mya) Status GSSP location Defining markers Geographic Coordinates References
Lopingian
Changhsingian 254.14
Zhejiang, China 31°04′55″N 119°42′23″E / 31.0819°N 119.7064°E / 31.0819; 119.7064 [29]
Wuchiapingian 259.8
Penglaitan Section,

Laibin, Guangxi, China

 23°41′43″N 109°19′16″E / 23.6953°N 109.3211°E / 23.6953; 109.3211 [30]
Guadalupian
Capitanian 265.1
Nipple Hill, Guadalupe Mountains, Texas, U.S.A. 31°54′33″N 104°47′21″W / 31.9091°N 104.7892°W / 31.9091; -104.7892 [3]
Wordian 268.8
Guadalupe Pass, Guadalupe Mountains, Texas, U.S.A. 31°51′57″N 104°49′58″W / 31.8658°N 104.8328°W / 31.8658; -104.8328 [3]
Roadian 272.3
Stratotype Canyon, Guadalupe Mountains, Texas, U.S.A. 31°52′36″N 104°52′36″W / 31.8767°N 104.8768°W / 31.8767; -104.8768 [3]
Cisuralian
Kungurian 283.5 Candidate section: - [3]
Artinskian 290.1 Candidate section: - [3]
Sakmarian 295 Candidate section: - [3]
Asselian 298.9
Aidaralash, Ural Mountains, Kazakhstan 50°14′45″N 57°53′29″E / 50.2458°N 57.8914°E / 50.2458; 57.8914 [31]

Carboniferous

Epoch Stage Age (mya) Status GSSP location Defining markers Geographic Coordinates References
Pennsylvanian
Gzhelian 303.7 Candidate sections: - [3]
Kasimovian 307 Candidate sections:
  • Biologic: First appearance of Protriticites or 1 millions years older Montiparus montiparus
 - [3]
Moscovian 315.2 Candidate sections: - [3]
Bashkirian 323.2
Arrow Canyon, Nevada, United States 36°44′00″N 114°46′40″W / 36.7333°N 114.7778°W / 36.7333; -114.7778 [32]
Mississippian
Serpukhovian 330.9 Candidate sections: - [3]
Visean 346.7
Pengchong Section,

Guangxi, China
  • Biologic: First appearance of Eoparastaffella simplex
 24°26′00″N 109°27′00″E / 24.4333°N 109.4500°E / 24.4333; 109.4500 [3]
Tournaisian 358.9
La Serre, Montagne Noire, France 43°33′20″N 3°21′26″E / 43.5555°N 3.3573°E / 43.5555; 3.3573 [33]

Devonian

Epoch Stage Age (mya) Status GSSP location Defining markers Geographic Coordinates References
Upper
Famennian 372.2
Coumiac quarry,

Montagne Noire, France

 43°27′41″N 3°02′25″E / 43.4613°N 3.0403°E / 43.4613; 3.0403 [34]
Frasnian 382.7
Col du Puech de la Suque, Montagne Noire, France
  • Biologic: First appearance of Ancyrodella rotundiloba (Conodont).
 43°30′12″N 3°05′12″E / 43.5032°N 3.0868°E / 43.5032; 3.0868 [35]
Middle
Givetian 387.7
Jebel Mech Irdane, Tafilalt, Morocco 31°14′15″N 4°21′15″W / 31.2374°N 4.3541°W / 31.2374; -4.3541 [36]
Eifelian 393.3
Wetteldorf Richtschnitt section,

Wetteldorf, Eifel, Germany

 50°08′59″N 6°28′18″E / 50.1496°N 6.4716°E / 50.1496; 6.4716 [37]
Lower
Emsian 407.6
Zinzil'ban Gorge, Uzbekistan 39°12′00″N 67°18′20″E / 39.2000°N 67.3056°E / 39.2000; 67.3056 [38]
Pragian 410.8
Velká Chuchle quarry

Velká Chuchle, Prague, Czech Republic
  • Biologic: First appearance of Eognathodus sulcatus (Conodont).
 50°00′53″N 14°22′21″E / 50.0147°N 14.3726°E / 50.0147; 14.3726 [39]
Lochkovian 419.2
Klonk, Prague, Czech Republic 49°51′18″N 13°47′31″E / 49.8550°N 13.7920°E / 49.8550; 13.7920 [3]

Silurian

Epoch Stage Age (mya) Status GSSP location Defining markers Geographic Coordinates References
Přídolí 423
Požáry Section,

Řeporyje District, Prague, Czech Republic

 50°01′40″N 14°19′30″E / 50.0277°N 14.3249°E / 50.0277; 14.3249 [40]
Ludlow
Ludfordian 425.6
Sunnyhill, Ludlow, England
  • Imprecise GSSP.
  • Biologic: Near first appearance of Saetograptus leintwardinensis (Graptolite).
 52°21′33″N 2°46′38″W / 52.3592°N 2.7772°W / 52.3592; -2.7772 [41]
Gorstian 427.4
Pitch Coppice, Ludlow, U.K.
  • Biologic: First appearance Saetograptus (Colonograptus) varians
 52°21′33″N 2°46′38″W / 52.3592°N 2.7772°W / 52.3592; -2.7772 [41]
Wenlock
Homerian 430.5
Whitwell Coppice, Homer, England 52°36′56″N 2°33′53″W / 52.6156°N 2.5647°W / 52.6156; -2.5647 [41]
Sheinwoodian 433.4
Hughley Brook, Apedale, U.K.
  • Imprecise GSSP. Will be reexamined.
  • Biologic: Currently between acritarch biozone 5 and last appearance of Pterospathodus amorphognathoides. Candidate boundaries are a conodont boundary (Ireviken datum 2) which is close to the murchisoni graptolite biozone.
 52°34′52″N 2°38′20″W / 52.5811°N 2.6389°W / 52.5811; -2.6389 [3][41]
Llandovery
Telychian 438.5
Cefn-cerig Road,

Llandovery, England

 51°58′12″N 3°47′24″W / 51.9700°N 3.7900°W / 51.9700; -3.7900 [40]
Aeronian 440.8
Trefawr Track, Llandovery, U.K. 52°01′48″N 3°42′00″W / 52.0300°N 3.7000°W / 52.0300; -3.7000 [40]
Rhuddanian 443.8
Dob's Linn, Moffat, U.K.
  • Biologic: First appearance of Akidograptus ascensus and Parakidograptus acuminatus (Graptolite).
  • 1.6 m above the base of the Birkhill Shale Formation.
 55°26′24″N 3°16′12″W / 55.4400°N 3.2700°W / 55.4400; -3.2700 [40]

Ordovician

Epoch Stage Age (mya) Status GSSP location Defining markers Geographic Coordinates References
Upper
Hirnantian 445.2
Wangjiawan section

Wangjiawan, Yichang, China
  • Biologic: First appearance of Normalograptus extraordinarius (Graptolite).
  • Climatic: Base of major positive carbon isotope excursion.
  • Climatic: Beginning of sea-level fall associated with onset of a major glaciation.
 30°59′03″N 111°25′11″E / 30.9841°N 111.4197°E / 30.9841; 111.4197 [42]
Katian 453
Black Knob Ridge section,

Oklahoma, United States
  • Biologic: First appearance of Diplacanthograptus caudatus (Graptolite).
  • Climatic: Just below base of Guttenberg carbon isotope excursion.
 34°25′50″N 96°04′29″W / 34.4305°N 96.0746°W / 34.4305; -96.0746 [43]
Sandbian 458.4
Fågelsång section

Sularp Brook, Skåne, Sweden

 55°42′49″N 13°19′32″E / 55.7137°N 13.3255°E / 55.7137; 13.3255 [44]
Middle
Darriwilian 467.3
Huangnitang Section

Huangnitang, Zhejiang, China
  • Biologic: First appearance of Undulograptus austrodentatus (Graptolite).
 28°51′14″N 118°29′23″E / 28.8539°N 118.4897°E / 28.8539; 118.4897 [45]
Dapingian 470
Huanghuachang section

Huanghuachang, Yichang, China

 30°51′38″N 111°22′26″E / 30.8605°N 111.3740°E / 30.8605; 111.3740 [46][47]
Lower
Floian 477.7
Diabasbrottet quarry,

Västergötland, Sweden

 58°21′32″N 12°30′09″E / 58.3589°N 12.5024°E / 58.3589; 12.5024 [48]
Tremadocian 485.4
Greenpoint section

Green Point, Newfoundland, Canada

 49°40′58″N 57°57′55″W / 49.6829°N 57.9653°W / 49.6829; -57.9653 [49]

Cambrian

Epoch Stage Age (mya) Status GSSP location Defining markers Geographic Coordinates References
Furongian
Stage 10 489.5 Candidate sections:

Candidates:

 - [50]
Jiangshanian 494
Duibian B Section

Duibian, Zhejiang, China

 28°48′57″N 118°36′54″E / 28.815967°N 118.614933°E / 28.815967; 118.614933 [51]
Paibian 497
Paibi section

Paibi, Hunan, China

 28°23′22″N 109°31′33″E / 28.3895°N 109.5257°E / 28.3895; 109.5257 [52]
Series 3
Guzhangian 500.5
Luoyixi section

Luoyixi, Guzhang, Hunan, China

 28°43′12″N 109°57′53″E / 28.7200°N 109.9647°E / 28.7200; 109.9647 [53]
Drumian 504.5
Drumian section

Wheeler Shale, Utah, U.S.A.

 39°30′42″N 112°59′29″W / 39.5117°N 112.9915°W / 39.5117; -112.9915 [54]
Stage 5 509 Candidate sections: - [55]
Series 2
Stage 4 514 None - [56]
Stage 3 521 None - [57][58]
Terreneuvian
Stage 2 529 None - -
Fortunian 541
Fortune head section,

Newfoundland, Canada

 47°04′34″N 55°49′52″W / 47.0762°N 55.8310°W / 47.0762; -55.8310 [59]

Precambrian

Proterozoic

Epoch Stage Age (mya) Status GSSP location Defining markers Geographic Coordinates References
Neoproterozoic
Ediacaran 635
Enorama Creek section

Flinders Ranges, South Australia
  • Geologic: Worldwide distinct cap carbonates.
  • Isotopic: Beginning of a distinctive pattern of secular changes in carbon isotopes.
 31°19′53″S 138°38′00″E / 31.3314°S 138.6334°E / -31.3314; 138.6334 [60]
Cryogenian 720
Defined chronometrically now. GSSP is in progress. - - [61]
Tonian 1000
Defined chronometrically - - [61]
Mesoproterozoic
Stenian 1200
Defined chronometrically - - [61]
Ectasian 1400
Defined chronometrically - - [61]
Calymmian 1600
Defined chronometrically - - [61]
Paleoproterozoic
Statherian 1800
Defined chronometrically - - [61]
Orosirian 2050
Defined chronometrically - - [61]
Rhyacian 2300
Defined chronometrically - - [61]
Siderian 2500
Defined chronometrically - - [61]

Archean

Epoch Stage Age (mya) Status GSSP location Defining markers Geographic Coordinates References
Neoarchean 2800
Mesoarchean 3200
Paleoarchean 3600
Eoarchean 4000
Hadean 4567

See also

References

  1. ↑ Walker, Mike; Johnsen, Sigfus; Rasmussen, Sune Olander; Popp, Trevor; Steffensen, Jørgen-Peder; Gibbard, Phil; Hoek, Wim; Lowe, John; Andrews, John; Björck, Svante; Cwynar, Les C.; Hughen, Konrad; Kershaw, Peter; Kromer, Bernd; Litt, Thomas; Lowe, David J.; Nakagawa, Takeshi; Newnham, Rewi; Schwander, Jakob (1 January 2009). "Formal definition and dating of the GSSP (Global Stratotype Section and Point) for the base of the Holocene using the Greenland NGRIP ice core, and selected auxiliary records". Journal of Quaternary Science. 24 (1): 3–17. doi:10.1002/jqs.1227.
  2. ↑ Litt, Thomas; Philip Gibbard (2008). "Definition of a Global Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) for the base of the Upper (Late) Pleistocene Subseries (Quaternary System/Period)" (PDF). Episodes. 31 (2). Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 March 2014. Retrieved 14 September 2012.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 "Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point". International Commission of Stratigraphy. Archived from the original on 15 November 2012. Retrieved 14 September 2012.
  4. ↑ Aguirre, E; G. Pasini (1985). "The Pliocene - Pleistocene Boundary" (PDF). Episodes. 8 (2): 116–120. Retrieved 14 September 2012.
  5. ↑ Rio, Domenico; R. Sprovieri; D. Castradori; E. Di Stefano (1998). "The Gelasian Stage (Upper Pliocene): A new unit of the global standard chronostratigraphic scale" (PDF). Episodes. 21 (2): 82–87. Retrieved 14 September 2012.
  6. ↑ Castradori, D.; D. Rio; F. J. Hilgen; L. J. Lourens (1998). "The Global Standard Stratotype-section and Point (GSSP) of the Piacenzian Stage (Middle Pliocene)" (PDF). Episodes. 21 (2): 88–93. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 November 2012. Retrieved 14 September 2012.
  7. ↑ Couvering, John A. Van; Davide Castradori; Maria Bianca Cita; Frederik J. Hilgen; Domenico Rio (2000). "The base of the Zanclean Stage and of the Pliocene Series" (PDF). Episodes. 23 (3): 179. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 November 2012. Retrieved 14 September 2012.
  8. ↑ Hilgen, F. J.; S. Iaccarino; W. Krijgsman; G. Villa; C. G. Langereis; W. J. Zachariasse (2000). "The Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) of the Messinian Stage (uppermost Miocene)" (PDF). Episodes. 23 (3): 172–178. Retrieved 14 September 2012.
  9. ↑ Hilgen, F. J.; Hayfaa Abdul Aziz; David Bice; Silvia Iaccarino; Wout Krijgsman; Klaudia Kuiper; Alessandro Montanari; Isabella Raffi; Elena Turco; Willem-Jan Zachariasse (2005). "The Global boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) of the Tortonian Stage (Upper Miocene) at Monte Dei Corvi" (PDF). Episodes. 28 (1): 6–17. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 December 2012. Retrieved 14 September 2012.
  10. ↑ Hilgen, F. J.; H. A. Abels; S. Iaccarino; W. Krijgsman; I. Raffi; R. Sprovieri; E. Turco; W. J. Zachariasse (2009). "The Global Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) of the Serravallian Stage (Middle Miocene)" (PDF). Episodes. 32 (3): 152–166. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 December 2012. Retrieved 14 September 2012.
  11. ↑ Steininger, Fritz F.; M. P. Aubry; W. A. Berggren; M. Biolzi; A. M. Borsetti; Julie E. Cartlidge; F. Cati; R. Corfield; R. Gelati; S. Iaccarino; C. Napoleone; F. Ottner; F. Rögl; R. Roetzel; S. Spezzaferri; F. Tateo; G. Villa; D. Zevenboom (1997). "The Global Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) for the base of the Neogene" (PDF). Episodes. 20 (1): 23–28. Retrieved 14 September 2012.
  12. ↑ Silva, Isabella Premoli; D. Graham Jenkins (1993). "Decision on the Eocene-Oligocene boundary stratotype" (PDF). Episodes. 16 (3): 379–382. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 December 2012. Retrieved 14 September 2012.
  13. ↑ Molina, Eustoquio; Laia Alegret; Estibaliz Apellaniz; Gilen Bernaola; Fernando Caballero; Jaume Dinarès-Turell; Jan Hardenbol; Claus Heilmann-Clausen; Juan C. Larrasoana; Hanspeter Luterbacher; Simonetta Monechi; Silvia Ortiz; Xabier Orue-Etxebarria; Aitor Payros; Victoriano Pujalte; Francisco J. Rodríguez-Tobar; Flavia Tori; Josep Tosquella; Alfred Uchman (2011). "The Global Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) for the base of the Lutetian Stage at the Gorrondatxe section, Spain" (PDF). Episodes. 34 (2): 86–108. Retrieved 14 September 2012.
  14. ↑ Dupuis, C.; Aubry, M.-P.; Steurbaut, E.; Berggren, W.A.; Ouda, K.; Magioncalda, R.; Cramer, B.S.; Kent, D.V.; Speijer, R.P.; Heilmann-Clausen, C. (2003). "The Dababiya Quarry section: lithostratigraphy, clay mineralogy, geochemistry and paleontology" (PDF). Micropaleontology. 49 (1): 41–59. doi:10.2113/49.suppl_1.41. Retrieved 14 September 2012.
  15. ↑ Aubry, Marie-Pierre; Khaled Ouda; Christian Dupuis; William A. Berggren; John A. Van Couvering; Working Group on the Paleocene/Eocene Boundary (2007). "The Global Standard Stratotype-section and Point (GSSP) for the base of the Eocene Series in the Dababiya section (Egypt)" (PDF). Episodes. 30 (4): 271–286. Retrieved 14 September 2012.
  16. 1 2 Schmitz, B.; Pujalte, V.; Molina, E.; Monechi, S.; Orue-Etxebarria, X.; Speijer, R. P.; Alegret, L.; Apellaniz, E.; Arenillas, I.; Aubry, M.-P.; Baceta, J.-I.; Berggren, W. A.; Bernaola, G.; Caballero, F.; Clemmensen, A.; Dinarès-Turell, J.; Dupuis, C.; Heilmann-Clausen, C.; Orús, A. H.; Knox, R.; Martín-Rubio, M.; Ortiz, S.; Payros, A.; Petrizzo, M. R.; von Salis, K.; Sprong, J.; Steurbaut, E.; Thomsen, E. (2011). "The global Stratotype Sections and Points for the bases of the Selandian (Middle Paleocene) and Thanetian (Upper Paleocene Paleocene) stages at Zumaia, Spain". Episodes. 34 (4): 220–243.
  17. ↑ Molina, Eustoquio; Laia Alegret; Ignacio Arenillas; José A. Arz; Njoud Gallala; Jan Hardenbol; Katharina von Salis; Etienne Steurbaut; Noel Vandenberghe; Dalila Zaghibib-Turki (2006). "The Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point for the base of the Danian Stage (Paleocene, Paleogene, "Tertiary", Cenozoic) at El Kef, Tunisia - Original definition and revision" (PDF). Episodes. 29 (4): 263–278. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 December 2012. Retrieved 14 September 2012.
  18. ↑ Odin, Gilles S.; Michèle A. Lamaurelle (2001). "The global Campanian-Maastrichtian stage boundary" (PDF). Episodes. 24 (4): 229–238. Retrieved 16 September 2012.
  19. ↑ Kennedy, W. J.; I. Walaszczyk; W. A. Cobban (2005). "The Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point for the base of the Turonian Stage of the Cretaceous: Pueblo, Colorado, U.S.A." (PDF). Episodes. 28 (2): 93–104. Retrieved 16 September 2012.
  20. ↑ Kennedy, W. J.; A. S. Gale; J. A. Lees; M. Caron (2004). "The Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) for the base of the Cenomanian Stage, Mont Risou, Hautes-Alpes, France" (PDF). Episodes. 27 (1): 21–32. Retrieved 16 September 2012.
  21. ↑ The Jurassic-Cretaceous boundary in the High Andes of Mendoza: New geochronological constraints
  22. ↑ Fernández-López, Sixto Rafael; Giulio Pavia; Elisabetta Erba; Myette Guiomar; Maria Helena Henriques; Roberto Lanza; Charles Mangold; Nicol Morton; Davide Olivero; Daniele Tiraboschi (2009). Episodes (PDF). 32 (4): 222–248 http://www.stratigraphy.org/GSSP/file16.pdf. Retrieved 17 September 2012. Missing or empty |title= (help)
  23. ↑ Pavia, G.; R. Enay (1997). Episodes (PDF). 20 (1): 16–22 http://www.stratigraphy.org/GSSP/file17.pdf. Retrieved 17 September 2012. Missing or empty |title= (help)
  24. ↑ Cresta, S.; A. Goy; S. Ureta; C. Arias; E. Barrón; J. Bernad; M. L. Canales; F. García-Joral; E. García-Romero; P. R. Gialanella; J. J. Gómez; J. A. González; C. Herrero; G. Martínez; M. L. Osete; N. Perilli; J. J. Villalaín (2001). "The Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) of the Toarcian-Aalenian Boundary (Lower-Middle Jurassic)" (PDF). Episodes. 24 (3): 166–175. Retrieved 17 September 2012.
  25. ↑ Meister, Christian; Martin Aberhan; Joachim Blau; Jean-Louis Dommergues; Susanne Feist-Burkhardt; Ernie A. Hailwood; Malcom Hart; Stephen P. Hesselbo; Mark W. Hounslow; Mark Hylton; Nicol Morton; Kevin Page; Greg D. Price (2006). "The Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) for the base of the Pliensbachian Stage (Lower Jurassic), Wine Haven, Yorkshire, UK" (PDF). Episodes. 29 (2): 93–106. Retrieved 17 September 2012.
  26. ↑ Bloos, Gert; Kevin N. Page (2002). "Global Stratotype Section and Point for base of the Sinemurian Stage (Lower Jurassic)" (PDF). Episodes. 25 (1): 22–28. Retrieved 17 September 2012.
  27. ↑ Mietto, P.; Manfrin S.; Preto N.; Rigo M.; Roghi G.; Gianolla P.; Posenato R.; Muttoni G.; Nicora A.; Buratti N.; Cirilli S.; Spötl C. (2012). "The Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) of the Carnian stage (Late Triassic) at Prati di Stuores/Stuores Wiesen section (Southern Alps, NE Italy)" (PDF). Episodes. 35: 414–430. Retrieved 4 February 2013.
  28. ↑ Brack, Peter; Hans Rieber; Alda Nicora; Roland Mundil (2005). "The Global boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) of the Ladinian Stage (Middle Triassic) at Bagolino (Southern Alps, Northern Italy) and its implications for the Triassic time scale" (PDF). Episodes. 28 (4): 233–244. Retrieved 18 September 2012.
  29. ↑ Yugan, Jin; Yue Wang; Charles Henderson; Bruce R. Wardlaw; Shuzhong Shen; Changqun Cao (2006). "The Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) for the base of Changhsingian Stage (Upper Permian)" (PDF). Episodes. 29 (3): 175–182. Retrieved 18 September 2012.
  30. ↑ Yugan, Jin; Shuzhong Shen; Charles M. Henderson; Xiangdong Wang; Wei Wang; Yue Wang; Changqun Cao; Qinghua Shang (2006). "The Global Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) for the boundary between the Capitanian and Wuchiapingian Stage (Permian)" (PDF). Episodes. 29 (4): 253–262. Retrieved 18 September 2012.
  31. ↑ Davydov, Vladimir I.; Brian F. Glenister; Claude Spinosa; Scott M. Ritter; V. V. Chernykh; B. R. Wardlaw; W. S. Snyder (1998). "Proposal of Aidaralash as Global Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) for base of the Permian System" (PDF). Episodes. 21 (1): 11–18. Retrieved 18 September 2012.
  32. ↑ Lane, H. Richard; Paul L. Brenckle; J. F. Baesemann; Barry Richards (1999). "The IUGS boundary in the middle of the Carboniferous: Arrow Canyon, Nevada, USA" (PDF). Episodes. 22 (4): 272–283. Retrieved 18 September 2012.
  33. ↑ Paproth, Eva; Raimund Feist; Gerd Flajs (1991). "Decision on the Devonian - Carboniferous boundary stratotype" (PDF). Episodes. 14 (4): 331–336. Retrieved 18 September 2012.
  34. ↑ Klapper, G.; R. Feist; R. T. Becker; M. R. House (1993). "Definition of the Frasnian/Famennian Stage boundary" (PDF). Episodes. 16 (4): 433–441. Retrieved 20 September 2012.
  35. ↑ Klapper, Gilbert; Raimund Feist; Michael R. House (1987). "Decision on the Boundary Stratotype for the Middle/Upper Devonian Series Boundary" (PDF). Episodes. 10 (2): 97–101. Retrieved 20 September 2012.
  36. ↑ Walliser, O. H.; P. Bultynck; K. Weddige; R. T. Becker; M. R. House (1995). "Definition of the Eifelian-Givetian Stage boundary" (PDF). Episodes. 18 (3): 107–115. Retrieved 20 September 2012.
  37. ↑ Ziegler, W.; G. Klapper (1985). "Stages of the Devonian System" (PDF). Episodes. 8 (2): 104–109. Retrieved 20 September 2012.
  38. ↑ Yolkin, E. A.; A. I. Kim; K. Weddige; J. A. Talent; M. R. House (1997). "Definition of the Pragian/Emsian Stage boundary" (PDF). Episodes. 20 (4): 235–240. Retrieved 20 September 2012.
  39. ↑ Chlupac, Ivo; William A. Oliver Jr. (1989). "Decision on the Lochkovian - Pragian Boundary Stratotype (Lower Devonian)" (PDF). Episodes. 12 (2): 109–113. Retrieved 20 September 2012.
  40. 1 2 3 4 Holland, C. H. (1985). "Series and Stages of the Silurian System" (PDF). Episodes. 8 (2): 101–103. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 December 2012. Retrieved 19 September 2012.
  41. 1 2 3 4 Holland, C. H. (1982). "The State of Silurian Stratigraphy" (PDF). Episodes. 5 (3): 21–23. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 December 2012. Retrieved 19 September 2012.
  42. ↑ Chen, Xu; Jiayu Rong; Junxuan Fan; Renbin Zhan; Charles E. Mitchell; David A. T. Harper; Michael J. Melchin; Ping'an Peng; Stan C. Finney; Xiaofeng Wang (2006). "The Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) for the base of the Hirnantian Stage (the uppermost of the Ordovician System)" (PDF). Episodes. 29 (3): 183–196. Retrieved 20 September 2012.
  43. ↑ Goldman, Daniel; Stephen A. Leslie; Jaak Nõlvak; Seth Young; Stig M. Bergström; Warren D. Huff (2007). "The Global Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) for the base of the Katian Stage of the Upper Ordovician Series at Black Knob Ridge, Southeastern Oklahoma, USA" (PDF). Episodes. 30 (4): 258–270. Retrieved 20 September 2012.
  44. ↑ Bergström, Stig M.; S. C. Finney; Chen Xu; Christian Pålsson; Wang Zhi-hao; Yngve Grahn (2000). "A proposed global boundary stratotype for the base of the Upper Series of the Ordovician System: The Fågelsång section, Scania, southern Sweden" (PDF). Episodes. 23 (2): 102–109. Retrieved 20 September 2012.
  45. ↑ Mitchell, C. E.; Chen Xu; S. M. Bergström; Zhang Yuan-dong; Wang Zhi-hao; B. D. Webby; S. C. Finney (1997). "Definition of a global boundary stratotype for the Darriwilian Stage of the Ordovician System" (PDF). Episodes. 20 (3): 158–166. Retrieved 20 September 2012.
  46. ↑ Wang, Xiaofeng; Svend Stouge; Bernd-D. Erdtmann; Xiaohong Chen; Zhihong Li; Chuanshang Wang; Qingluan Zeng; Zhiqiang Zhou; Huiming Chen (2005). "A proposed GSSP for the base of the Middle Ordovician Series: the Huanghuachang section, Yichang, China" (PDF). Episodes. 28 (2): 105–117. Retrieved 20 September 2012.
  47. ↑ Wang, Xiaofeng; Svend Stouge; Chen Xiaohong; Li Zhihong; Wang Chuanshang; Stan C. Finney; Zeng Qingluan; Zhou Zhiqiang; Chen Huiming; Bernd-D. Erdtmann (2009). "The Global Stratotype Section and Point for the base of the Middle Ordovician Series and the Third Stage (Dapingian)" (PDF). Episodes. 32 (2): 96–113. Retrieved 20 September 2012.Note: there is an apparent typo in the article referenced; they give the coordinates as "a latitude of 30°51’37.8"N and a longitude of110°22’26.5"E", but their map and location description better corresponds to 30°51’37.8"N 111°22’26.5"E.
  48. ↑ Bergström, Stig M.; Anita Löfgren; Jörg Maletz (2004). "The GSSP of the Second (Upper) Stage of the Lower Ordovician Series: Diabasbrottet at Hunneberg, Province of Västergötland, Southwestern Sweden" (PDF). Episodes. 27 (4): 265–272. Retrieved 20 September 2012.
  49. ↑ Cooper, R. A.; G. S. Nowlan; S. H. Williams (2001). "Global Stratotype Section and Point for base of the Ordovician System" (PDF). Episodes. 24 (1): 19–28. Retrieved 20 September 2012.
  50. ↑ Landing, E.; Westrop, S.R.; Adrain, J.M. (19 September 2011). "The Lawsonian Stage - the Eoconodontus notchpeakensis FAD and HERB carbon isotope excursion define a globally correlatable terminal Cambrian stage". Bulletin of Geosciences: 621–640. doi:10.3140/bull.geosci.1251.
  51. ↑ "GSSP for Jiangshanian". Retrieved 12 November 2012.
  52. ↑ Peng, Shanchi; Babcock, Loren; Robison, Richard; Lin, Huanling; Rees, Margaret; Saltzman, Matthew (30 November 2004). "Global Standard Stratotype-section and Point (GSSP) of the Furongian Series and Paibian Stage (Cambrian)" (PDF). Lethaia. 37 (4): 365–379. doi:10.1080/00241160410002081. Retrieved 14 September 2012.
  53. ↑ Peng, Shanchi; Loren E. Babcok; Jingxun Zuo; Huanling LIn; Xuejian Zhu; Xianfeng Yang; Richard A. Ribosn; Yuping Qui; Gabriella Bagnoli; Yong'an Chen (2009). "The Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) of the Guzhangian Stage (Cambrian) in the Wuling Mountains, Northwestern Hunan, China" (PDF). Episodes. 32 (1): 41–55. Retrieved 14 September 2012.
  54. ↑ Babcock, Loren E.; Richard A. Robison; Margaret N. Rees; Shanchi Peng; Matthew R. Saltzman (2007). "The Global boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) of the Drumian Stage (Cambrian) in the Drum Mountains, Utah, USA" (PDF). Episodes. 30 (2): 85–95. Retrieved 14 September 2012.
  55. ↑ Gozalo, Rodolfo; Álvarez, María Eugenia Dies; Vintaned, José Antonio Gámez; Zhuravlev, Andrey Yu.; Bauluz, Blanca; Subías, Ignacio; Chirivella Martorell, Juan B.; Mayoral, Eduardo; Gursky, Hans-Jürgen; Andrés, José Antonio; Liñán, Eladio (1 December 2011). "Proposal of a reference section and point for the Cambrian Series 2-3 boundary in the Mediterranean subprovince in Murero (NE Spain) and its intercontinental correlation". Geological Journal. 48: 142–155. doi:10.1002/gj.1330.
  56. ↑ Peng, S.C.; Babcock, L.E. (21 September 2011). "Continuing progress on chronostratigraphic subdivision of the Cambrian System" (PDF). Bulletin of Geosciences: 391–396. doi:10.3140/bull.geosci.1273. Retrieved 21 November 2012.
  57. ↑ "GSSP Table - Paleozoic Era". Retrieved 15 November 2012.
  58. ↑ Yuan, J.L.; Zhu, X.J.; Lin, J.P.; Zhu, M.Y. (22 September 2011). "Tentative correlation of Cambrian Series 2 between South China and other continents" (PDF). Bulletin of Geosciences: 397–404. doi:10.3140/bull.geosci.1274. Retrieved 23 November 2012.
  59. ↑ Brasier, Martin; John Cowie; Michael Taylor (1994). "Decision on the Precambrian-Cambrian boundary stratotype" (PDF). Episodes. 17 (1-2): 95–100. Retrieved 14 September 2012.
  60. ↑ Knoll, Andrew; Walter, Malcolm; Narbonne, Guy; Christie-Blick, Nicholas (28 February 2006). "The Ediacaran Period: a new addition to the geologic time scale" (PDF). Lethaia. 39 (1): 13–30. doi:10.1080/00241160500409223. Retrieved 14 September 2012.
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