List of ''American Gladiators'' events

American Gladiators is an athletic competition game show where contestants, referred to as "contenders", competed against the show's titular Gladiators in a series of physical games called "events" with the goal to be crowned the Grand Champion at the end of the season and win thousands of dollars in cash and prizes.

Over the course of the original series and a 2008 revival, twenty-three events were conceived. Each event was scored, with the objectives for scoring differing from event to event. When the original series premiered in 1989, points were awarded in. multiples of five. Following a reconfiguration of the show's format in 1990, points were awarded in numbers ranging from one to ten; this carried over for the remainder of the original series and the 2008 revival.

The amount of events per episode ranged from six to eight on the original series depending on the season, while the 2008 revival ranged from five to seven depending on the season and round of play. The one constant was the final event, The Eliminator.

Assault

Years active: 1989–96, 2008

The contender had 60 seconds to make it through a course that spanned the entire arena floor, firing off weapons to hit a target. Standing in their way was a Gladiator operating an air-powered gun that shot tennis balls at the contender at high speed. The contenders had barriers to stand behind as they fired weapons that offered some protection but the course was laid out in a manner that required them to move back and forth across the arena floor and into the Gladiator's line of fire.

In the first half of season one, there were four safe zones conisting of a pillbox (where the contender started the event, weapon in hand), a burnt out building, a thatch bush, and two oil drums, and four weapons (see chart below). If the contenders hit the bull's eye on the target, which was located at the foot of the Gladiator's platform, they would receive 100 points. Hitting the outer rim was worth less points, originally 60 and rising to 75 by the end of the season. If the contenders failed to hit the target in four tries but still had time on the clock, they could earn 30 points and a draw by taking cover in the last safe zone and avoiding being hit.

For the second half of season one and continuing on, the course consisted of five safe zones and five weapons. The contenders also had to run to the first safe zone instead of starting at it, and the target was moved above the Gladiator's head.

Other changes made over the course of the series:

Assault Course configurations over the years:

Season Station 1 Station 2 Station 3 Station 4 Station 5 Draw Criteria Target Hit Result
Original Run
1a Rocket launcher Cannon Glitter pistol 2 or 3 Hand Grenades None Last 60 seconds without getting hit at final safe zone Gladiator is covered in dirt (males) or glitter (females)
1b Crossbow Rocket launcher Cannon Pistol 3 hand grenades Must cross finish line within time limit Pyrotechnics at foot of Gladiator platform
2 3 softballs A smoke cannon shoots the Gladiator and their cannon
3 and early 4 Pump gun Smoke cannon in front of Gladiator
Later 4 Ball rifle Crossbow 2 softballs
5–7 Crossbow Arrow rifle Must hit buzzer at end of course within time limit Smoke cannon shoots Gladiator
2008 Version
1 Slingshot Turret Cannon Rocket search/Smokescreen Rocket crossbow rifle 3 balls, must be deployed with a button Press button at end of course within time limit Gladiator is launched into pool of water
2 Slingshot Cannon (no longer rotates) Bazooka/smokescreen

Atlasphere

Years active: 1990–94, 2008

Atlasphere was conducted across the entire arena floor and saw the contenders and Gladiators enter spherical metal cages to do battle in a sixty-second event. The object for the contenders was to roll their spheres into any of four octagonal scoring pods while the Gladiators used their spheres to impede the contenders' progress.

In the first year that Atlasphere was part of the event rotation, the scoring pods had a large circular depression in the middle. The contenders had to roll into the pod and settle their sphere into it for one second in order for a score, which would be indicated by a blast of nitrogen "smoke" from the center of the pod. This caused problems for some contenders as they could not generate enough momentum to get out of the pod and would become stuck for an extended period. For season three, the pods were redesigned to prevent contenders from getting stuck. In addition, an actuator was placed in the middle of each pod and all a contender had to do to score was touch it, which would trigger a ring of chase lights and a plume of smoke to indicate the score.

1, 2, or 3 points were awarded for each score, depending on the season and round of play.

Breakthrough & Conquer

Years active: 1989–96

Breakthrough & Conquer was a combination of American football and freestyle wrestling. The event was divided into two parts, each scored separately. This was also an event that the show did not initially allow female contenders to compete in; for portions of the preliminary rounds in 1989 a different game was played off screen (see Swingshot).

In Breakthrough, the contender began at the 15-yard line of an artificial turf field and had to carry a football into the end zone for a touchdown. A Gladiator was positioned inside the five-yard line and had to remain there until the contender reached them. The contender scored by getting any part of the ball over the goal line without being tackled, going out of bounds, or losing hold of the ball.

The contender then moved over to a circle to grapple with a second Gladiator for 10 seconds (15 in season four). The contender won by forcing any part of the Gladiator's body to touch the floor outside the circle. If the contender was forced out, they could re-enter the circle and keep grappling until time expired.

In the first half of season one, 30 (later 40) points were given for each successful part, and a contender earned bonus points if they were successful at both parts for a total of 100 points. From that point forward, 5 points were given for each successful portion of the event (although 3 were given during a point in season three).

Also in the first half of season one, the series experimented by having the Conquer circle elevated; this forced contenders to take the Gladiator completely out of the circle to win. A protective mat was placed on the floor below for safety. The experiment, which took place during the semifinal round of competition, ended badly after one of the female contenders pulled Gladiator Sunny out of the circle from the front, causing her to land awkwardly; Sunny suffered a severe knee injury as a result and left the series altogether.

Earthquake

Years active: 2008

In Earthquake, a contender and Gladiator attempted to throw each other off of a moving twelve-foot circular platform above the arena floor and either onto crash mats (season one) or into water. In order to win the event, one had to be completely removed from the platform and not be hanging onto anything supporting it.

The contender received ten points for throwing the Gladiator off the platform and five for lasting the entire thirty seconds.

Gauntlet

Years active: 1993–96, 2008

In this event, the contenders had to run through a half-pipe chute while avoiding five Gladiators, all holding blocking pads to impede the contender's progress. 25 seconds were given to start. If the contender made it out in time or without being forced out of the chute, they earned 5 points. If they made it out in under 20 seconds, 10 points were awarded.

In the final season of the original series, the event was played with four Gladiators, and the time limits were reduced to 15 seconds for 10 points, and 20 seconds for 5.

For the 2008 series, the contenders were given thirty seconds to negotiate the Gauntlet, which was redesigned to take away the Gladiators' ability to push the contenders out of the chute. For the first season and the preliminary rounds of the competition, contenders received two points for passing each Gladiator for a total of eight, and then two more for breaking through a wall at the end after passing the last Gladiator. For the remainder of the series, the timed scoring rules were revived with contenders receiving ten points for escaping within twenty seconds and five for escaping within thirty.

Hang Tough

Years active: 1990–96, 2008

Hang Tough saw the contenders use a series of hanging gymnastic rings to swing themselves from one side of the arena to the other with the object being to reach and land on a platform on the opposite side while trying to avoid being taken off the rings by a Gladiator or falling off on their own.

The contenders were given sixty seconds to reach the opposite end and received ten points if they did. If they lasted the whole sixty seconds and were still on the rings, they received five points for a draw unless the official determined that they did not make enough of an effort to advance, resulting in no points being awarded; this rule was instituted after several early playings saw contenders only go out a short distance from their platform. It also gave rise to a short-lived seven point draw possibility, which required the contender to advance to the closest rings to the Gladiator's platform (which were color coded).

Contenders were required to continue moving as long as they were not stuck on one ring or engaged with a Gladiator, and neither the contender nor the Gladiator could stay in one place for more than ten seconds. Gladiators were not allowed to contact the contenders above the shoulders or pull the contestant down by their uniform, or they would be disqualified. Contenders could also win the event if they were impeded by a cameraman on the opposing platform.

Hang Tough debuted on the 1990 alumni show season premiere, but did not join the event rotation until the second half of the season began in 1991.

Hit & Run

Years active: 2008

Hit & Run was one of several events that the 2008 series adopted from the UK series.

The event took place on 50-foot (15 m) suspension bridge hanging above a water tank. At each end of the bridge was an actuator and each time a contender crossed the bridge and pushed it, two points were scored. Meanwhile, four Gladiators attempted to knock the contenders off by throwing 100-pound wrecking balls at them. The contenders were allowed to duck to avoid the balls but had to remain standing at all times otherwise. The event went on for sixty seconds or until the contender fell from the bridge.

Human Cannonball

Years active: 1989–90 (through first half of season two), 1992–93

The object of this game was simple: swing on a rope from an elevated platform and try to knock a Gladiator off a pedestal some distance away. The Gladiator was given a blocking pad for protection.

Originally, three Gladiators played this event and contenders received three swings. For the first half of season one, each successful swing was worth 30 points and 10 bonus points were given if the contender managed to knock all three Gladiators off the pedestal. In the second half of season one, this was reduced to three points for each swing and one bonus point for knocking all three off. After that, two Gladiators competed in the event and contenders were given five points for each successful swing.

After the preliminary round in the first half of season one, a rule was added that forbade contenders from leaving a tucked position while swinging; the rule was put in place out of safety concerns raised after Gladiator Malibu suffered a gash caused by contender Brian Hutson hitting him in the face with his feet extended. Any contender who did not remain in this position for the entire swing had the results of their swing disallowed. A first season addendum also called for removal from the event for a second offense, which happened to contender Elden Kidd in the second half of the season when he committed two fouls against Gladiator Titan.[1]

Human Cannonball was replaced by Hang Tough in the rotation after the first half of season 2, and was brought back in season 4 before being retired.

Joust

Years active: 1989–96, 2008

The Joust saw the contender and Gladiator face off against each other with pugil sticks for thirty seconds.

In the first half of season one, the event was conducted on an apparatus resembling a bridge. To win the event, either the contender or Gladiator could knock the other off of the bridge or advance on them and try to get them to cross a line behind them. This was supposed to trigger a trap door, which would open and drop the loser onto the floor, but it rarely worked properly. In addition, each contender was guaranteed points regardless of the result. The scale started at 30 points and increased by 5 for every five seconds a contender stayed in the bout. Draws were worth 75 points and a victory was worth 100.

Beginning in the second half of season one and continuing across the remainder of the original and revival series, the object became to knock the opponent off of a pedestal onto a crash pad (original series) or into a pool (revival). Ten points were awarded for a win, with five for a draw.

Several things could result in a disqualification, such as:

In the second half of season three the contenders and Gladiators began wearing gloves while Jousting. This rule was instituted after contender Marek Wilczynski had to have the tip of one of his fingers amputated when it got jammed against his pugil stick.

The Maze

Years active: 1991–93

A giant maze was constructed across the entire length of the arena floor, and the contenders were given 45 seconds to negotiate their way through it. Inside were four Gladiators, armed with blocking pads to impede their path. To aid the contenders each Gladiator was restricted to a particular area in the maze and could not chase the contenders past it. In each playing of The Maze, there were only two correct paths to take, and with movable partitions inside the maze those two paths were different each time.

The first contender to escape in time earned 10 points, with the second earning 5.

Powerball

Years active: 1989–96, 2008

Regarded as a signature event of the whole series, Powerball was an event where the contenders attempted to score by depositing colored balls (originally rubber play balls, then soccer balls and finally much smaller Nerf balls) into narrow cylinders while trying to evade three Gladiators who defended the playing field.

In the first half of season one, Powerball was conducted on a half-circle shaped field with two bins filled with balls at one end and the scoring cylinders laid out on the edge of the circle at the other end. Each score was worth 15 points and for 45 seconds, the contenders would grab balls from their respective bins and try to score while the Gladiators attempted to stop them by any means possible (tackling, pushing the contender out of bounds, etc.) so long as they were not excessively rough with the contenders; if any Gladiator was determined to have violated this rule, the contender was rewarded with a score.

In the second half of the season, the Powerball field was extended to take up the entire length of the arena floor and the layout of the scoring cylinders changed and one was placed in the middle of the field, with any ball deposited there worth more points. In addition, the ball bins were placed on opposite ends of the field and the contenders had to alternate which bin they chose balls from. The Gladiators were not allowed in these areas. Also, penalties for rough contact now resulted in a Gladiator being removed from the event and all tackling was banned; with the exception of the tackling ban, these rules remained in place for the remainder of the original series (Gladiators were forbidden to tackle above the shoulders, though).

In the second half of the first season, goals in the four outer cylinders were worth one point and the center cylinder was worth two. After that, the scoring varied from 1-3 points for outer goals and 2-5 for center goals depending on the season and round of play. Beginning in the second season, Powerball began using scoring cylinders with a wider, rounded bottom; the original cylinders were prone to falling over and breaking if contenders and Gladiators knocked them over.

The 2008 series' Powerball game was played for 60 seconds on a field had a retaining wall placed around it, which took away the out of bounds option for the Gladiators. For the first season, goals were worth two points for the outer cylinders and three for the center, and the cylinders had wider openings to encourage contenders to attempt to toss their scoring balls into them. The second season discarded that in favor of the original cylinder style and goals were reduced to one point for the outer cylinders and two for the center.

Super Powerball (1992–93)

Introduced in season four of the original series, Super Powerball was a variant on the original event played with two Gladiators and three scoring cylinders laid in a straight line in the middle of the field. Three points were awarded for goals in the left or right cylinders, and five points were awarded for center cylinder goals.

Pyramid

Years active: 1993–96, 2008

The contenders faced a pyramid made out of tiered crash mats and were given 45 seconds to try to ascend it. Two Gladiators stood in their way, attempting to prevent them from reaching the top. At the top of the Pyramid was an actuator (originally a ring bell) that the contenders were required to hit to score. The first to do so scored ten points, and the second earned five.

The 2008 series increased the time limit to 60 seconds and adapted a rule from the British series for scoring purposes. The fourth tier from the top had a white dotted line placed on it, which was referred to as the "scoring zone". If either contender reached it, they would score five points. Five additional points would be scored, and the event would end, if a contender reached the summit and hit the actuator. The British series called the fourth tier from the top the "safety step" and instituted this after Diane Youdale, who portrayed female Gladiator Jet, was forced to retire from the series after suffering an injury on their Pyramid. The rule that the Gladiators could not chase contenders above the step was not adopted as contenders would have an unfair advantage.

Also in 2008, the Pyramid became part of the Eliminator course at the end of each episode. (See the Eliminator section below.)

Rocketball

Years active: 2008

Rocketball was an event that was saw the contenders face off against two Gladiators in a high flying basketball game.

Each player was attached by harness to a bungee cord. The contenders each had a bin of colored balls that they would try to place in one of two colored baskets, one red and one yellow, hung from the ceiling of the arena. To do this, they would press a button on the stage floor which would launch them toward the baskets. The Gladiators, meanwhile, had buttons of their own and would use theirs to launch themselves up to play defense.

The process repeated itself for sixty seconds. For each ball the contenders put in the red basket, which was the higher basket, two points were awarded. Each ball in the lower yellow basket was worth one.

Sideswipe

Years active: 2008

A new event for Season 2, Sideswipe has both contenders hopping or running from platform to platform above the water as they try to take a colored ball from a container on one end of a line of five platforms and deposit it in a "bullseye" goal at the other end. While the contestants are transporting the balls, three Gladiators try to knock them off the platforms by swinging at them on rope swings – with the Gladiators themselves being the projectiles.[2]

Sky Track

Years active: 1992–95, 2008

In the version of Sky Track played on the original series, the contenders and a Gladiator raced each other on an inverted, Velcro-covered track. Using their hands and feet (each covered in Velcro to assist in moving), they would move down the track to the opposite end, hit an actuator button, then turn around and head back to the start/finish line.

There were three possible outcomes to every race and they were scored in the following manner.

The 2008 series adopted the format used on the British series. Here, both contenders were chased by a Gladiator over a figure-eight shaped track and had to make one lap around the track. Each contender wore a harness with a ripcord on it, which the Gladiators would try to grab. If they did, the contender would be disconnected from the track and lose the event. Ten points were awarded for completing the course first, with the second contender receiving five.

Snapback

There were two different events called Snapback played on American Gladiators. The debuted in season five in 1994 and was played for the remainder of the series. The second was part of the 2008 series.

Original Snapback

The contenders faced two Gladiators, with all attached to bungee cords. The object was to run out onto the field of play and grab large red and blue scoring cylinders that were hung above the field, using the bungee cord for assistance. The Gladiators tried to impede the progress of the contestants and/or knock the cylinders away.

Once the contender had a cylinder, they would bring it back to a large scoring bin and drop it in if they kept possession of it. The red cylinders were hung lower than the blue ones and were worth two points (later one) for each one retrieved. The higher-hanging blue cylinders were worth three points (later two) as they were tougher to grab.

2008 Snapback[3]

The 2008 edition saw the contenders try to hit a red button at the end of a 50-foot (15 m)-long lane. Each contender was attached to a Gladiator with a bungee cord, with the Gladiator providing resistance by pulling on the cord from a platform above the floor. Contenders were given thirty seconds to reach the buttons, and if they did the Gladiators would be launched across the arena. There were four scoring zones along each lane, and if any part of the contender's body was in one of those zones, which ranged from two to eight points in two-point increments, when time expired they received that amount of points.

Swingshot

Years active: 1991–96

The contenders faced three (later two) Gladiators in a 45 (later 60) second event. The object for the contender was to jump from a platform using a bungee cord, use their momentum to propel themselves from the floor to a cylinder with red, yellow, and blue colored scoring balls, grab one, then spring back to their platform and deposit them in a bin. The Gladiators were there to try to block the contenders from doing so.

1 point was awarded for each yellow ball grabbed, since they were the lowest level and easiest to grab. The blue balls were on the second level of the cylinder, and were worth 2–3 points. The red balls were highest on the cylinder and were worth 3–5 points. Contenders were required to jump off their platforms immediately once in the position to jump, and could not throw off a Gladiator's timing by "faking" a jump. If they did, any balls they scored on the ensuing jump would not count.

In the first half of season one, the name Swingshot was given to a game strictly played by the female contenders in the early rounds of play in place of Breakthrough and Conquer. Footage of the game was never shown, only how the contenders did. The game was eventually discarded in favor of having the women play Breakthrough and Conquer with the men, so there is no record other than the offhanded mentions of how the game was played.

Tug-O-War/Tilt

Years active: 1993–96 (as Tug-O-War), 2008 (as Tilt)

The contender faced a Gladiator in a two-man tug of war on tilting platforms for thirty seconds.

In the original series, the platforms were at equal height and the contender started tilted back with the Gladiator starting tilted forward. The object was to pull the Gladiator off the platform, which was worth ten points. A flag was placed in the middle of the rope and the contender could earn five points for a draw if they stayed on the platform for the entire thirty seconds and had the flag on their side of the arena. Neither the contender nor the Gladiator could let go of the rope, as doing so would result in a disqualification.

In the 2008 series, which saw the event adopt its British series' name, the rope was attached to two harnesses worn by the contender and Gladiator and the Gladiator's platform was raised above the contender's to put them at a disadvantage. Ten points were awarded for a win and staying on the platform for the entire thirty seconds earned the contender a draw.

Vertigo

Years active: 1993–96 2008

Vertigo was another UK series import added to the 2008 series rotation.

The event was a race between the contender and Gladiator on a course of seven poles hung from the roof of the arena. Each participant had their own set of poles to traverse. The race started with the contender and Gladiator climbing up the first pole, and from there they had to maneuver from pole to pole and reach a hoop at the end of the course. The first to pull their respective hoop won the race.

The contenders earned ten points for winning. If the Gladiator won, the contenders could still add five points if they had reached the fifth pole before the race ended.

The Wall

Years active: 1990–96, 2008

The Wall saw contenders trying to ascend a rock-climbing wall without being pulled off by a pursuing Gladiator. The original series conducted the event on a 32-foot (9.8 m) structure. The height of the wall during the first season of the 2008 series was 40 feet (12 m) high, and it was extended to 50 feet (15 m) for the second.

Debuting in the first half of season one, the time limit for The Wall was two minutes. The contenders were also given a head start on the Gladiators, with the men receiving fifteen seconds and the women ten. Beginning in season two, and continuing across both the original and revival series, the limit was set at one minute. Originally, the head starts were carried over and both men and women contenders received ten seconds with the exception of a brief spell in season four when fifteen seconds were given.

In season five of the original series, The Wall was given an overhaul. A partitioned structure was built with grips placed on the dividers which enabled all participants to cross over to a new section. The contenders and Gladiators each started climbing one of the partitions, with one pairing beginning at the leftmost two partitions and the other at the rightmost two. All four climbers started at the same time, and in order to pull their contender off the Gladiators had to cross over. The contenders, meanwhile, were able to cross over to the center partition and force their pursuer to cross two partitions to pull them down. When the series returned in 2008, The Wall's previous format returned with it but with only a seven-second head start given.

Ten points were given to the first to successfully ascend The Wall and five were given to the second if both made it. For the first two seasons (and very briefly in season four), the higher advancing climber earned five points if both were pulled off. The 2008 series awarded five points for staying on The Wall without being pulled off for the entire time.

Whiplash

Years active: 1993–96

The contender and Gladiator grasped opposite ends of a "dog bone" with triangular handles, each using one hand and standing atop a 20-foot (6.1 m) diameter circular platform. The contender had 30 seconds in which to either pull the bone away from the Gladiator ("owning the bone") or drag him/her off the platform, thus scoring 10 points. The Gladiator won by "owning the bone" or staying on the platform for the entire 30 seconds. Touching the bone with both hands resulted in disqualification.

In season 7, the contender could earn 5 points for a draw by holding onto the bone until time expired.

The Eliminator

The Eliminator served as each episode's final event and was the only event where the contenders faced off directly with each other instead of against the Gladiators. The Gladiators would still participate but as the years went on they were involved less and less.

The Eliminator was an obstacle course laid out over the entire arena floor. The obstacles used varied from year to year.

1989–91

For the first two seasons the Eliminator was conducted with a time limit and both contestants started the event at the same time. In the first season both sets of contenders had sixty seconds to finish, and in the second the women had seventy-five.

The event was scored in the following manner:

In the event that an injured contender was forced to withdraw just before the Eliminator, the opponent automatically advanced to the next round of competition. In the preliminary rounds only, the contender would then run the Eliminator alone for seeding purposes in the quarterfinals.

The first season's Eliminator featured the following obstacles:

The second half of the first season saw the balance beam and commando line sections lengthened and the top rope was raised to aid taller contenders. The run to the finish also changed to have narrower corridors, and one additional Gladiator was added to the mix leaving only one of the four doors clear.

For season two, the Eliminator saw an overhaul with new obstacles and the finish line was moved from the front of the arena to the back. These were the changes made:

1991–93

Beginning with the first episode of the third season and continuing for the remainder of the series, the Eliminator was no longer scored. Instead the leading contender was given a head start of half a second for each point he/she led by entering the event and the opposing contender had to make up the deficit. Whoever finished the course first won the match.

With the third season came some changes, many of which remained in place for season four. The layout of both courses, with corresponding changes, follows:

From here, the objective varied.

Season 3
Season 4

After this, the contenders would vault over a hurdle, where a short run to the finish line awaited; the first contender to reach the finish would break through a strip of yellow tape before crossing. In season three, the distance between the final hurdle and the finish was short enough to allow for contenders to make desperate leaps to try to cross the line first.[4] In fact, that season's Grand Championship was decided in such a manner; Mark Ortega was able to pass Joseph Mauro after jumping over the final hurdle and landing with his body across the finish line before Mauro broke the finish tape. Season four saw the run from the hurdle to the finish lengthened considerably to prevent that from happening again.

1993–96

In keeping with the aesthetic overhaul AG went through at the start of its fifth season, the Eliminator too was given a makeover inspired by the British Gladiators course in use at the time. While most of the course remained the same, three new obstacles were added in season five and a fourth in season seven.

In seasons five and six, the Gladiators' involvement was limited to "enforcing" the time penalties for falling off the hand bike. (The Gladiators were removed altogether for season seven as well as both seasons of the 2008 revival.)

International tournaments

For both International Gladiators tournaments (1994 and 1996), which were held in the National Indoor Arena in Birmingham, England where the British series taped, the Eliminator course from that series was used and consisted of these obstacles.

2008 Version

The 2008 series used the same scoring rules that were in place from 1991 onward on the original series.

For the 2008 version, the layout was as follows.

Season 1

After the Travelator, a small set of stairs led to a series of crash blocks that the contenders had to break through to finish, and the first contender to do so won. If the second contender was still on the Travelator when the first contender broke through, the second contender could opt to have the Travelator turned off.

Season 2

For season two, these changes were made.

References

  1. ↑ https://www.youtube.com/americangladiators; "The Dirtiest Contender".
  2. ↑ Sideswipe page on NBC.com Archived 2008-05-30 at the Wayback Machine.
  3. ↑ Snapback Archived 2008-05-28 at the Wayback Machine. – from nbc.com
  4. ↑ 1991 first half semifinal matchup between Tim Goldrick and Coz Worthington; Worthington attempts to overtake Goldrick with a leap but does not. Airdate c. December 1991.
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