Kurdish languages

Kurdish
Kurdî / کوردی
Native to	Turkey, Iraq, Iran, Syria, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia
Region	Kurdistan, Anatolia, Khorasan
Ethnicity	Kurds
Native speakers	C. 20–30 million (2000–2010 est.)[1]
Language family	Indo-European Indo-Iranian Iranian Western Northwestern Kurdish
Dialects	Northern Kurdish (Kurmanji) Central Kurdish (Sorani) Southern Kurdish (Palewani)
Writing system	In use: Hawar alphabet (Latin script; used mostly in Turkey and Syria) Sorani alphabet (Perso-Arabic script; used mostly in Iraq and Iran) Not used: Cyrillic alphabet (former Soviet Union)
Official status
Official language in	Iraq  Iraqi Kurdistan
Recognised minority language in	Armenia[2]
Language codes
ISO 639-1	ku
ISO 639-2	kur
ISO 639-3	kur – inclusive code Individual codes: ckb – Central Kurdish kmr – Northern Kurdish sdh – Southern Kurdish
Glottolog	kurd1259[3]
Linguasphere	58-AAA-a (North Kurdish incl. Kurmanji & Kurmanjiki) + 58-AAA-b (Central Kurdish incl. Dimli/Zaza & Gurani) + 58-AAA-c (South Kurdish incl. Kurdi)
Map of Kurdish-speaking areas of the Middle East
Geographic distribution of Kurdish and other Iranian languages spoken by Kurds   Northern   Central   Southern   Zaza   Gorani   mixed areas

Part of a series on Kurdish history and Kurdish culture

People List of Kurds

Population Homeland Kurdistan Turkey (Northern Kurdistan) Iran (Eastern Kurdistan) Iraq (Southern Kurdistan) Syria (Western Kurdistan) Diaspora Armenia Australia Azerbaijan Canada France Georgia Germany Israel Japan Jordan Kazakhstan Lebanon Netherlands New Zealand Pakistan Russia Sweden Turkmenistan United Kingdom United States

History History of the Kurds

Culture Kurdish culture Clothing Cuisine Celebrations Dance Flag Historical sites Language Folklore Literature Music Kurdish philosophers

Ancient history Karduchian dynasties Corduene Zabdicene Cyrtians Moxoene Kayusids

Medieval history Shahrizor Sadakiyans Mir Jafar Dasni Aishanids Daisam Shaddadids Rawadids Hasanwayhids Annazids Marwanids Hadhabani Hazaraspids Ayyubids Zands Badlis Ardalan Badinan Soran Mokryan Baban

Modern history Simko Shikak revolt Koçgiri Rebellion Ararat rebellion Dersim Rebellion Kingdom of Kurdistan Kurdish Republic of Ararat Republic of Mahabad Al-Anfal campaign Iraqi Kurdistan (KRG) Iranian Kurdistan Turkish Kurdistan Syrian Kurdistan Kurds in Iraq Kurds in Iran Kurds in Turkey Kurds in Syria

Languages Kurmanci Sorani Zazaki Pehlewani Gorani

Religion Islam Christianity Judaism Yarsanism Yazidism Zoroastrianism

Kurdish (Kurdî, کوردی; pronounced [ˈkuɾdiː]) is a continuum of Northwestern Iranian languages spoken by the Kurds in Western Asia. Kurdish forms three dialect groups known as Northern Kurdish (Kurmanji), Central Kurdish (Sorani), and Southern Kurdish (Palewani). A separate group of non-Kurdish Northwestern Iranian languages, the Zaza–Gorani languages, are also spoken by several million Kurds.^[4][5][6][7] Studies as of 2009 estimate between 8 and 20 million native Kurdish speakers in Turkey.^[8] The majority of the Kurds speak Northern Kurdish ("Kurmanji").^[9][10]

The literary output in Kurdish was mostly confined to poetry until the early 20th century, when more general literature began to be developed. Today, there are two principal written Kurdish dialects, namely Northern Kurdish in the northern parts of the geographical region of Kurdistan and Central Kurdish further east and south. Central Kurdish is, along with Arabic, one of the two official languages of Iraq and is in political documents simply referred to as "Kurdish".^[11][12]

Classification and origin

The Kurdish languages belong to the Iranian branch of the Indo-European family. They are generally classified as Northwestern Iranian languages, or by some scholars as intermediate between Northwestern and Southwestern Iranian.^[13] Martin van Bruinessen notes that "Kurdish has a strong south-western Iranian element", whereas "Zaza and Gurani [...] do belong to the north-west Iranian group".^[14]

Ludwig Paul concludes that Kurdish seems to be a Northwestern Iranian language in origin,^[15] but acknowledges that it shares many traits with Southwestern Iranian languages like Persian, apparently due to longstanding and intense historical contacts.

Windfuhr identified Kurdish dialects as Parthian, albeit with a Median substratum.^[16]

The present state of knowledge about Kurdish allows, at least roughly, drawing the approximate borders of the areas where the main ethnic core of the speakers of the contemporary Kurdish dialects was formed. The most argued hypothesis on the localisation of the ethnic territory of the Kurds remains D.N. Mackenzie's theory, proposed in the early 1960s (Mackenzie 1961). Developing the ideas of P. Tedesco (1921: 255) and regarding the common phonetic isoglosses shared by Kurdish, Persian, and Baluchi, Mackenzie concluded that the speakers of these three languages may once have been in closer contact.

He has tried to reconstruct the alleged Persian-Kurdish-Baluchi linguistic unity presumably in the central parts of Iran. According to Mackenzie's theory, the Persians (or Proto-Persians) occupied the province of Fars in the southwest (proceeding from the assumption that the Achaemenids spoke Persian), the Baluchis (Proto-Baluchis) inhabited the central areas of Western Iran, and the Kurds (Proto-Kurds), in the wording of G. Windfuhr (1975: 459), lived either in northwestern Luristan or in the province of Isfahan.^[17]

Subdivisions

Kurdish is divided into three groups, where dialects from different groups are not mutually intelligible without acquired bilingualism.^[18][19]

• Northern Kurdish (Kurmanji) is the largest dialect group, spoken by an estimated 15 to 20 million Kurds in Turkey, Syria, northern Iraq and northwestern Iran.
• Central Kurdish (Sorani) is spoken by an estimated 6 to 7 million Kurds in much of Iraqi Kurdistan and the Iranian Kurdistan Province.^[20] Sorani is a written standard of Central Kurdish developed in the 1920s (named after the historical Soran Emirate) and was later adopted as the standard orthography of Kurdish as an official language of Iraq.^[21]
• Southern Kurdish (Pehlewani) is spoken by about 3 million Kurds in Kermanshah and Ilam provinces of Iran and in the Khanaqin district of eastern Iraq.^[22]

In historical evolution terms, Kurmanji is less modified than Sorani and Pehlewani in both phonetic and morphological structure. The Sorani group has been influenced by among other things its closer cultural proximity to the other languages spoken by Kurds in the region including the Gorani language in parts of Iranian Kurdistan and Iraqi Kurdistan.^[20][23] The Kermanshahi group has been influenced by among other things its closer cultural proximity to Persian.^[22]

Philip G. Kreyenbroek, an expert writing in 1992, says:^[20]

Since 1932 most Kurds have used the Roman script to write Kurmanji.... Sorani is normally written in an adapted form of the Arabic script.... Reasons for describing Kurmanji and Sorani as 'dialects' of one language are their common origin and the fact that this usage reflects the sense of ethnic identity and unity among the Kurds. From a linguistic or at least a grammatical point of view, however, Kurmanji and Sorani differ as much from each other as English and German, and it would seem appropriate to refer to them as languages. For example, Sorani has neither gender nor case-endings, whereas Kurmanji has both.... Differences in vocabulary and pronunciation are not as great as between German and English, but they are still considerable.

According to Encyclopaedia of Islam, although Kurdish is not a unified language, its many dialects are interrelated and at the same time distinguishable from other Western Iranian languages. The same source classifies different Kurdish dialects as two main groups, northern and central.^[23] The reality is that the average Kurmanji speaker does not find it easy to communicate with the inhabitants of Suleymania or Halabja.^[19]

Some linguistic scholars assert that the term "Kurdish" has been applied extrinsically in describing the language the Kurds speak, whereas ethnic Kurds have used the word term to simply describe their ethnic or national identity and refer to their language as Kurmanji, Sorani, Hewrami, Kermanshahi, Kalhori or whatever other dialect or language they speak. Some historians have noted that it is only recently that the Kurds who speak the Sorani dialect have begun referring to their language as Kurdî, in addition to their identity, which is translated to simply mean Kurdish.^[24]

Mokriani dialect of Central Kurdish is widely spoken in Mokrian. Piranshahr and Mahabad are two principal cities of the Mokrian dialect area.^[25]

Zazaki and Gorani

Zaza–Gorani languages, which are spoken by communities in the wider area who identify as ethnic Kurds, are not linguistically classified as Kurdish.^[4][5][6][7] Zaza-Gorani is classified as adjunct to Kurdish, although authorities differ in the details. Windfuhr 2009 groups Kurdish with Zaza Gorani within a "Northwestern I" group, while Glottolog based on Encyclopædia Iranica prefers an areal grouping of "Central dialects" (or "Kermanic") within Northwest Iranic, with Kurdish but not Zaza-Gorani grouped with "Kermanic".^[26]

Gorani is distinct from Northern and Central Kurdish, yet shares vocabulary with both of them and there are some grammatical similarities with Central Kurdish.^[27] The Hawrami dialects of Gorani includes a variety that was an important literary language since the 14th century, but it was replaced by Central Kurdish in the 20th century.^[28]

European scholars have maintained that Gorani is separate from Kurdish and that Kurdish is synonymous with the Northern Kurdish group, whereas ethnic Kurds maintain that Kurdish encompasses any of the unique languages or dialects spoken by Kurds that are not spoken by neighboring ethnic groups.^[29]

Gorani is classified as part of the Zaza–Gorani branch of Indo-Iranian languages.^[30] The Zaza language, spoken in the northernmost parts of Kurdistan, differs both grammatically and in vocabulary and is generally not understandable by Gorani speakers but it is considered related to Gorani. Almost all Zaza-speaking communities,^[31] as well as speakers of the closely related Shabaki dialect spoken in parts of Iraqi Kurdistan, identify themselves as ethnic Kurds.^{[4][32][33][34][35][36]}

Geoffrey Haig and Ergin Öpengin in their recent study suggest grouping the Kurdish languages into Northern Kurdish, Central Kurdish, Southern Kurdish, Zaza, and Gorani, and avoid the subgrouping Zaza–Gorani.

History

During his stay in Damascus, historian Ibn Wahshiyya came across two books on agriculture written in Kurdish, one on the culture of the vine and the palm tree, and the other on water and the means of finding it out in unknown ground. He translated both from Kurdish into Arabic in the early 9th century AD.^[37]

Among the earliest Kurdish religious texts is the Yazidi Black Book, the sacred book of Yazidi faith. It is considered to have been authored sometime in the 13th century AD by Hassan bin Adi (b. 1195 AD), the great-grandnephew of Sheikh Adi ibn Musafir (d. 1162), the founder of the faith. It contains the Yazidi account of the creation of the world, the origin of man, the story of Adam and Eve and the major prohibitions of the faith.^[38] From the 15th to 17th centuries, classical Kurdish poets and writers developed a literary language. The most notable classical Kurdish poets from this period were Ali Hariri, Ahmad Khani, Malaye Jaziri and Faqi Tayran.

The Italian priest Maurizio Garzoni published the first Kurdish grammar titled Grammatica e Vocabolario della Lingua Kurda in Rome in 1787 after eighteen years of missionary work among the Kurds of Amadiya.^[39] This work is very important in Kurdish history as it is the first acknowledgment of the widespread use of a distinctive Kurdish language. Garzoni was given the title Father of Kurdology by later scholars.^[40] The Kurdish language was banned in a large portion of Kurdistan for some time. After the 1980 Turkish coup d'état until 1991 the use of the Kurdish language was illegal in Turkey.^[41]

Current status

Today, Central Kurdish is an official language in Iraq. In Syria, on the other hand, publishing materials in Kurdish is forbidden,^[42] though this prohibition is not enforced any more due to the civil war.^[43]

Before August 2002, the Turkish government placed severe restrictions on the use of Kurdish, prohibiting the language in education and broadcast media.^[44][45] The Kurdish alphabet is not recognized in Turkey, and the use of Kurdish names containing the letters X, W, and Q, which do not exist in the Turkish alphabet, is not allowed.^[46] In 2012, Kurdish-language lessons became an elective subject in public schools. Previously, Kurdish education had only been possible in private institutions.^[47]

In Iran, though it is used in some local media and newspapers, it is not used in public schools.^[48][49] In 2005, 80 Iranian Kurds took part in an experiment and gained scholarships to study in Kurdish in Iraqi Kurdistan.^[50]

In March 2006, Turkey allowed private television channels to begin airing programming in Kurdish. However, the Turkish government said that they must avoid showing children's cartoons, or educational programs that teach Kurdish, and could broadcast only for 45 minutes a day or four hours a week.^[51] However, most of these restrictions on private Kurdish television channels were relaxed in September 2009.^[52]

In 2010, Kurdish municipalities in the southeast decided to begin printing water bills, marriage certificates and construction and road signs, as well as emergency, social and cultural notices in Kurdish alongside Turkish. Friday sermons by Imams began to be delivered in the language, and Esnaf provided Kurdish price tags.^[53]

The state-run Turkish Radio and Television Corporation (TRT) started its 24-hour Kurdish television station on 1 January 2009 with the motto "we live under the same sky".^[54] The Turkish Prime Minister sent a video message in Kurdish to the opening ceremony, which was attended by Minister of Culture and other state officials. The channel uses the X, W, and Q letters during broadcasting.

In Kyrgyzstan, 96.4% of the Kurdish population speak Kurdish as their native language.^[55] In Kazakhstan, the corresponding percentage is 88.7%.^[56]

Phonology

According to the Kurdish Academy of Language, Kurdish has the following phonemes:

Consonants

	Bilabial	Labio- dental	Apical	Post- alveolar	Palatal	Velar	Uvular	Pharyn- geal	Glottal
Nasal	m		n			ŋ
Plosive	p 3   b		t 3   d			k 2,3   ɡ 2	q		ʔ
Affricate				t͡ʃ 3   d͡ʒ
Fricative		f   v	s   z	ʃ   ʒ		x   ɣ 4		ħ 4   ʕ 4	h
Lateral			l   ɫ 1
Flap			ɾ
Trill			r
Approximant		ʋ			j

• ^1 Just as in many English dialects, the velarized lateral does not appear in the onset of a syllable. Additionally, in some dialects, the velarized lateral /ɫ/ changes to a [ɾ] in women's speech.^[57]
• ^2 /k/ and /ɡ/ are strongly palatalized before the close and mid front vowels (/i/ and /e/) as well as the rounded high front allophone [ɥ] of the phoneme /w/, closing on /t͡ʃ/ and /d͡ʒ/.^[58]
• ^3 In the Kurmanji dialect, a phonemic distinction is made between aspirated and unaspirated voiceless stops. Thus /p/ contrasts with /pʰ/, /t/ with /tʰ/, /k/ with /kʰ/, and the affricate /t͡ʃ/ with /t͡ʃʰ/. This may be an areal feature shared with languages such as Armenian.^[59]
• ^4 the phonemes /ɣ/, /ħ/, /ʕ/ are not considered to be native Kurdish sounds (see [1] page 12,13).

Vowels

According to the Kurdish Academy of Language, vowel phonemes of Kurdish are as follows:^[60][61]

	Front	Central	Back
Close	iː	ʉː	uː
Near-close	ɪ
Close-mid	eː		o
Open-mid	ɛ
Open	aː

As in most modern Iranian languages, Kurdish vowels contrast in quality; they often carry a secondary length distinction that does not affect syllabic weight.^[62] This distinction appears in the writing systems developed for Kurdish. The four "short" vowels are /ɛ/, /ɪ/, /o/, and /u/. The five long vowels are /aː/, /eː/, /iː/, /uː/ and /ʉː/.^[60] Variations occur, e.g. in Southern Kurdish where long vowel /ɑː/ is used instead of /aː/ and short vowel /a/ is used instead of /ɛ/.

Historical phonology

OP	MP	Persian	Kurdish	Parthian	Avestan	Proto-Iranian
θ	h	h	s	s	s	*ś
d	d	d	z	z	z	*ź
j	z	z	ž	ž	j	*j, *Vč
c	z	z	ž	ž	c	*č
-š-	-š-	-š-	-h-/nil	-š-	-š-	*-š-
x-	x-	x-	k-	x-	x-	*x-
w-	w-	b-	b-	w-	w-	*w-
y-	j-	j-	j-	y-	y-	*y-
b, d, g	w, y, (')	w, y, (/nil)	w, y, (nil)	β, ð, ɣ	b, d, g	*b, *d, *g
p, t, k	b, d, g,	b, d, g	w, h, y, (/nil)	β, ð, ɣ	p, t, k	*p, *t, *k
Vm	-m	-m	-v (-w)	-m	-m	-*m
fr-	fr- (hr-)	for- etc.	fr-	fr-	fr-	*fr-
ç	s	s	s?	hr	θr ('s'?)	*θr
θw	h	h	h? or w/v?	f	θw	*θw
duv-	d-	d-	d-	b-	duu-	*dw-
s/z	s/z	s/z	sp?/zw?	sp/zw	sp/zw	*św/ *źw
(h)uv-	xw-	x(w)-	x(w)-	wx-	xv-, huu-	*hw-
rd	l, r	l	unclear (maybe: l, ł, r)	rð & rz	rd & rz	*rd & *rź
nd	nd/nn	nd	n	nd	nd	*nd
šn	šn	šn	žn	zn	sn	*śn
Všm, Vhm	-šm, -hm	-šm, -xm	-v (-w)	-šm, -hm	-šm, -hm	*šm?
ft	ft	ft	(w)t, (ft?)	ft	ft	*ft
xt	xt	xt	t	xt	xt	*xt
pasā	pas	pas	pāš	paš	pas-ča	*pas-ča
šiyav-	šaw-	šaw-	č-	šaw-	šiiu-	*čyau-
a-	a-	a-	ha-	a-	a-	*a-
d-	-d-	-d-	-l-	-d-	-d-	-*d-

Indo-European linguistic comparison

Because Kurdish is an Indo-European language, there are many words that are cognates in Kurdish and other Indo-European languages such as Avestan, Persian, Sanskrit, German, English, Norwegian, Latin and Greek. (Source: Altiranisches Wörterbuch (1904) for the first two and last six.)

Kurdish	Avestan	Persian	Sanskrit	Greek	English	German	Swedish	Latin	Lithuanian	Russian	PIE
ez "I"	azəm	adam [Old Persian]	aham	egō	I ( < OE ić)	ich	jag	ego	aš	ja (related to OCS azŭ)	*h₁eĝh₂om
lep "paw"				palāme "palm"	(OE lōf "fillet, band") to lob	(OHG lappo "palm (of the hand)")	(hand)love "palm (of the hand)"	labor (hand)work	lṓpa "paw, claw"	lápa "paw"	*tlāp-
jin "woman"	ɣənā- "woman"	zan	janay-	gynē	queen	(OHG quena)	kvinna	genus "birth, origin"	(OPruss. genna)	žená "wife"	*gʷenh₂-
leystin (bileyzim) "to play (I play)"		ley ley kardan(to jump with one foot)	réjati	ālma "jump"	(OE lācan "to play")	leich	leka		láigyti		*(e)leig'- "to jump, to spring, to play"
mezin, gewre "great"	maz-, mazant	masan (middle Persian), gošn "numerous"	mah(ī)-/mahānt-	megas	much ( < OE mićil, myćil)	(OHG mihhil)	mycket "much"	magnus		moshch "power"	*meĝh₂- "big, great"
mêzer "headband/turban"	Miθra "binding", "god name"	*Miça "god name"(Old Persian)		mitra "headband, turban",		mitre "belt, turban"				metat' "to sew, to tack"	*mei- "to tie"
pez "sheep"	pasu- "sheep, goat"	boz "goat"	paśu "animal"	poemne "herd"	fee ( < OE feoh "cattle")	Vieh "cattle"	får "sheep" fä "domestic animal"	pecus "cattle"	pekus "ox"	pasti "to herd"	*pek̂-u- "sheep"
çiya چيا),[63] kash[64] کاش) "mountain"		kūh, chakād "peak/summit"	kakúd-, kakúbh- "peak/summit"	koryfē "top"		kupfa[65][66] Gipfel "peak/summit"		cacūmen		kucha "pile"	*kak-, *kakud- "top"
jîyar "alive" jiyan "to live"	gaêm [gaya]	zend[e] "alive", zî[stan] "to live", zaideh "child"	jīv-	zoi "life", zō "live"	quick	quick "bright"	kvick "quick"	vīvus "alive", vīvō "live", vīta "life"	gývas	žyzn' "life", žyvój "living, alive"	*gʷih₃(u̯)-
[di] [a]zan[im] "I know" zan[în] "to know"	zan-	[mi]dān[am] "I know", dān[estan] "to know"	jān-	[gi]gnō[skō]	know	kennen	kunna "to be able to", "to know"	nō[scō], [co]gn[itus]	žin[au]"I know" žin[oti] "to know"	znat' "to know"	*ĝneh₃-

Grammar

Vocabulary

The bulk of the vocabulary in Kurdish is of Iranian origin, especially of northwestern Iranian. A considerable number of loanwords come from Semitic, mainly Arabic, which entered through Islam and historical relations with Arab tribes. Yet, a smaller group of loanwords which are of Armenian, Caucasian, and Turkic origins are used in Kurdish, besides some European words. There are also Kurdish words with no clear etymology.

Writing system

The Kurdish language has been written using four different writing systems. In Iraq and Iran it is written using an Arabic script, composed by Sa'id Kaban Sedqi. More recently, it is sometimes written with a Latin alphabet in Iraq. In Turkey, Syria, and Armenia, it is now written using a Latin script. Kurdish was also written in the Arabic script in Turkey and Syria until 1932. There is a proposal for a unified international recognized Kurdish alphabet based on ISO-8859-1^[67] called Yekgirtú. Kurdish in the former USSR is written with a Cyrillic alphabet. Kurdish has even been written in the Armenian alphabet in Soviet Armenia and in the Ottoman Empire (a translation of the Gospels in 1857^[68] and of all New Testament in 1872).

See also

• Kurdish culture
• Kurdish Institute of Paris
• Kurdish Institute of Istanbul
• List of countries by Kurdish-speaking population
• University of Kurdistan (Iran)
• University of Kurdistan - Hawler

References

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Kurdish language.

Kurmanji Kurdish edition of Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Sorani Kurdish edition of Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Southern Kurdish test of Wikipedia at Wikimedia Incubator

Laki test of Wikipedia at Wikimedia Incubator

Wikivoyage has phrasebook for Kurdish.

• Wîkîferheng (Kurdish Wiktionary)
• inKurdish: English–Kurdish Translation
• Online English Kurdish Translation
• Dictio: English–Kurdish Dictionary
• The Kurdish Institute of Paris: Language and Literature
• Kurdish Language and Linguistics, at Encyclopedia Iranica (article written by Ludwig Paul)
• History of Kurdish Written Literature, at Encyclopedia Iranica (article written by Philip G. Kryeenbroek)
• Kurdish Language Initiative of Seywan Institute
• Kurdish Institute of Istanbul
• KAL: The Kurdish Academy of Language
• Kurdish Language Academy in Iran
• Kurdish Kurdish links and language information, dictionary etc.
• Kurdish languages at DMOZ
• Grammar of a Less Familiar Language (MIT OpenCourseWare)
• Southern Kurdish phonetic
• Gorani Influence on Central Kurdish
• Reference Grammar with Selected Readings both for Sorani and Kurmanji written by W. M. Thackston