Kingdom of Sarawak

Kingdom of Sarawak
Independent Kingdom (until 1888)
Protectorate of the United Kingdom
1841–1941
1945–1946
Motto
Latin: Dum Spiro Spero[1][2]
(While I breathe, I hope)[2]
Anthem
Gone Forth Beyond the Sea
Kingdom of Sarawak in the 1920s.
Capital Kuching
Languages English, Iban, Melanau, Bidayuh, Sarawak Malay, Chinese etc.
Government Absolute monarchy,[3][4] Protectorate
White Rajahs
 •  1841–1868 James Brooke (first)
 • 1917–1946 Charles Vyner Brooke (last)
Historical era New Imperialism
 •  Established 24 September 1841
 • Protectorate 14 June 1888
 • Japanese invasion 16 December 1941
 • Allied liberation June 1945
 •  Ceded to the Crown colony 1 July 1946
Area
 •  1945 124,450 km2 (48,050 sq mi)
Population
 •  1841 est. 8,000 
 •  1848 est. 150,000 
 •  1893 est. 300,000 
 •  1933 est. 475,000 
 •  1945 est. 600,000 
     Density 5/km2 (12/sq mi)
Currency Sarawak dollar
Preceded by 		Succeeded by
Bruneian Empire
Japanese occupation of British Borneo
Japanese occupation of British Borneo
British Military Administration (Borneo)
Crown Colony of Sarawak
Today part of  Malaysia

The Kingdom of Sarawak (also known as the State of Sarawak)[5] was a British protectorate located in the northwestern part of the island of Borneo. It is originally established as an independent kingdom from a series of land concession acquired by an English adventurer James Brooke from the Sultanate of Brunei. The kingdom received a recognition as an independent state from the United States in 1850, and from the United Kingdom in 1864.

Following the recognition, Brooke expand the kingdom territory at the expense of Brunei by reducing the territorial of the latter. Several major rebellions occurred against his rule, causing him to be plagued by debt as most allocation were used to counter the rebellions in addition to the sluggish economic situation at the time. The administration then succeeded by his nephew, Charles Brooke who significantly normalise the situation by improving economy, reducing government debts and establishing many public infrastructures. The kingdom was made a protectorate in 1888.

To geared up the economic growth, the second Rajah encourage the migration of Chinese workers from China and Singapore to work in the agricultural fields. With proper economic planning and the stable situation, Sarawak prospered and emerged as one of the world's major producers of black pepper in addition to the foundation of oil and the growth of rubber plantation. He was succeeded by his son Charles Vyner Brooke but interrupted by World War II with the arrival of Japanese forces ultimately bringing an end to the Rajahs and protectorate administration, with the territory placed under a military administration and then designated as a crown colony.

History

Foundation and early years

James Brooke, the founder of the kingdom.

The kingdom was founded by James Brooke, an English adventurer who arrived to the shore of Sarawak River and decide to berth his schooner there in 1839.[6] After serving in the First Anglo-Burmese War where he was severely wounded in the battle,[7][8] Brooke returned to England in 1825 to recovering from injuries. Despite his attempts to return into service, he was unable to return to India before the permission granted on him to temporary leave the service expired.[9] Brooke accidentally overstayed his furlough resulting to his position in the military was superseded and was awarded a pension by the government for his service.[9][10][11] By then, he subsequently retired by leaving his career in India and went to China to improve his health condition.[12]

On his way to China in 1830, he saw the islands of the Asiatic Archipelago is still unknown to Europeans generally.[12] He returned to England again in 1835 during which his father died on this time.[13][14] Inspired by the adventures stories on the success of the East India Company (EIC) where his father had been serving especially from the efforts of Stamford Raffles to expanding the company influence in the Asiatic Archipelago,[15][16][17] he began to purchase a schooner which he named Royalist using the £30,000 left by his father.[7][8] He recruited a crew for the schooner and training in the Mediterranean Sea in late 1836,[9] before beginning their sail to the Far East on 27 October 1838.[13] By July 1839, he reached Singapore and came across some British sailors who had been shipwrecked and helped by Pengiran Raja Muda Hashim, the uncle of Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddin II of Brunei.[9][18]

Brooke originally planned to sail to Marudu Bay in northwestern Borneo but the British Governor-General in Singapore asking him to thanked the Raja who is located in southwestern Borneo.[9][19][20] The following month he continue his sails to the western coast of the island and on 14 August 1839, Brooke berth his schooner on a shore of a river that was to be known as Sarawak River and met Hashim to delivered the message.[19] The Raja told Brooke that his presence in the area was to control a rebellion against the Sultanate of Brunei caused by the oppressive policies of Pengiran Indera Mahkota who is a kinsman of the Sultan.[18][21][22] Mahkota had earlier been dispatched by the Sultan to monopoly the antimony in the area; which as a result directly affecting the incomes of the local Malays there and growing frustration from the indigenous Land Dayak who had been forced to work in the mines for about 10 years.[23][24] It has also been alleged that the rebellion against Brunei is aided by the neighbouring Sultanate of Sambas and Dutch East Indies who wanted to establish economic rights over the antimony.[25] Despite Hashim's efforts to stop the rebellion, it come to no avail thus leading him to sought direct help from Brooke.[20]

Responding to the request, a force of local natives was raised and led by Brooke with the rebellion managed to be temporarily stopped.[22] Brooke was granted a large quantity of antimony from the local mines and authority in the Sarawak River as a reward.[20] Since then, Brooke became embroiled in Hashim's campaign to restore order in the area.[26] He further sail to Marudu Bay in northwestern Borneo to resuming the sea journey where he find out that piracy had going rampant; causing him to set a vision to suppress the activities and to carry a civilisation to the Malayan race.[13] Brooke returned to Singapore and spending another six months cruising along the coasts of the Celebes Islands before returning to Sarawak on 29 August 1840.[13][27]

Establishment

The Dayaks who subsequently became Brooke followers and most loyal to the kingdom along with the local Malays of Sarawak.[28][29]

Upon his returning to Sarawak, the rebellion against Brunei's rule was still in progress. He managed to completely suppress the rebellion and pardoning the rebels to joining into his side by providing positions in some administrative authority while limiting their power.[30] Despite the refusal of Hashim to pardoning them at the first and wanted to execute all the rebels, Hashim was convinced by Brooke to forgive them as he had taken major part in the supression.[31] In exchange for Brooke's continuous supports towards the Sultanate and rental payment of £500, he was awarded the Kuching area from the Sultanate of Brunei;[26][32] which later became Sarawak First Division.[33] Hashim however began to think twice about the territory he giving to Brooke, a doubt which have been fanned by Mahkota who had been deprived from his power in the area in favour of Brooke.[27] This led Hashim to constantly delay the recognition of concession and angered Brooke. On 24 September 1841, Brooke with his Royalist that were fully armed went ashore to Hashim's audience chamber and calling them to negotiate. With little choice and he put the blame mainly on Mahkota, Hashim abide by the request and proclaimed Brooke as the Rajah. Brooke issued a new law for the territory by banning slavery, headhunting and piracy;[34] and by July 1842, his appointment was confirmed by Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddin II.[27]

The first flag of the kingdom from 1841 until 1848 with the St George's Cross.
Brooke battling with pirates in their campaign to suppressing piracy along the coast of Borneo, c. 1845.

To prevent any further dispute with Brunei, Brooke hoped to bring a reform to the administration of the Sultanate and establish a pro-British government through Hashim and his brother Pengiran Badruddin. By October 1843, Brooke returned the two brothers to Brunei and bringing along Admiral Edward Belcher of the Royal Navy with his HMS Samarang (1822) and the EIC Phlegethon.[35] The vessels anchored at the Sultan's audience chamber, requesting Pengiran Yusof position as Bendahara to be replaced by Hashim and asking the Sultan pledge to suppress piracy in his dominions as well ceding the island of Labuan to the British although the latter claim was not supported by the British government.[35] The status of Brooke as a Rajah and consul for the British at the time also remain controversial in the United Kingdom as he was not recognised by the British government to representing the British subjects.[36][37] Indirectly, Brooke had become involved in the dynastic internal dispute of Brunei.[38] From 1844, Brooke actively assisting the suppression of piracy in the coasts of western and northern Borneo together with Admiral Henry Keppel and his HMS Dido (1836) along with Phlegethon;[39] where during the course of piracy suppression they encountered Mahkota, the former administrator of Kuching area who had formed an alliance with an Sea Dayak pirate chief on the Skrang River in Sarawak and captured him in the same year.[40][41]

Sketch of Pengiran Raja Muda Hashim who became the close friend of Brooke, c. 1846.

In August 1845, Admiral Thomas Cochrane arrived at Brunei with a squadron from six to eight ships to release two Lascar seamen who are believed to be hidden there.[38][42] Badruddin accused Yusof to be involved in a slave trade due to his close relations with a notable pirate leader Sharif Usman in Marudu Bay and the Sultanate of Sulu.[38] Denying the allegation, Yusof refused to attend a meeting with Cochrane, and escaped after been threatened with force by Cochrane before regaining his own force to the Brunei's capital. Cochrane then sailed away to Marudu Bay to pursuing Usman, while Yusof was defeated by Badruddin.[38][42] Hashim managed to establish a rightful position in the Brunei Town to become the next Sultan after successfully defeating the piratical forces led by Yusof who fled to Kimanis in northern Borneo where he was executed.[43][44] Yusof are the favourite noble to the Sultan and with Hashim victory, this upset the chances of the son of Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddin II to become the next leader.[44][45] Mahkota, who had returned to Brunei in 1845 after his capture in Sarawak in 1844 became the Sultan adviser in the absence of Yusof who had been executed. He prevailed to the Sultan to order the execution of Hashim,[42] whose presence had become unwelcomed to the royal family especially due to his close ties with Brooke that were favourable to English policy.[46] Beside that, an adventurer named Haji Saman who are connected to the late Yusof; played upon the Sultan fear that Hashim will take over his throne.[47]

Steamer Phlegethon and the boats of Thomas Cochrane repelling an attack from the forts of Borneo Proper on 8 July 1846.

By the order of the Sultan, Hashim and his brother Badruddin together with their family was killed during the attempt of assassination in 1846.[42][46][48] One of Badruddin slaves, Japar survived the attack and intercepting HMS Hazard (1837) where he was brought to Sarawak to inform the news to Brooke. Enranged by the news, Brooke organised an expedition to avenge Hashim's death with the aid of Cochrane from the Royal Navy with his Phlegethon.[47] By 6 July 1846, Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddin II complaining through a letter in their attempt to avoiding the attack about the discourtesy of HMS Hazard and inviting Cochrane to ascend the capital with two boats. Phlegethon and other vessels then moved up to the river on 8 July where they been fired from every position with a slight damage.[47] Mahkota and the Sultan retreat to the upriver while most of the population have fled upon their arrival to the Brunei's capital, leaving the brother of the Sultan son Pengiran Muhammad who are badly wounded and Pengiran Mumin, an opponent of the Sultan son who despise the decision of his royal family to be involved in conflict with the British.[42][47] The British destroy the town forts and inviting the population to return with no harm will be done to them while the Sultan remain hiding in the jungle. Another expedition was sent to the interior but also failed to find the Sultan. Brooke remained in Brunei with Admiral Rodney Mundy and his HMS Iris (1840) along with other vessels of Phlegethon and HMS Hazard while the main expedition continue their journey to suppressing piracy in northern Borneo.[47]

Upon knowing Haji Saman is living in Kimanis and he was involved in the plotting that caused Hashim's death, Brooke depart to the area and destroyed his house although Saman still managed to escaped.[47] Brooke returned again to Brunei and finally managed to induce the Sultan to return to the capital where the Sultan finally regret over the killings of Hashim, his brother and their family members by writing an apology letter to Queen Victoria.[49] Through his confession, the Sultan recognise Brooke's authority over Sarawak and mining rights throughout the territory without requiring him having to pay any tribute as well granting the island of Labuan to the British which it was finally recognised by the latter government.[49] Brooke depart Brunei and left Mumin in charge together with Mundy to keep the Sultan in line until the British government made a final decision to acquired the island. Following the ratification agreement of the transfer of Labuan to the British, the Sultan also finally agreed to allow British forces to suppress all piracy activities along the coast of Borneo.[49]

Later years

The second flag of the kingdom from 1848 to 1870.
An English barque named Rajah of Sarawak, after James Brooke (drawn by Samuel Walters, c. 1850).

The following year in 1847, Brooke asked the Sultan of Brunei to sign another treaty to prevent the Sultanate from engaging any concession treaty with other foreign powers especially after the visit of USS Constitution in 1845.[49] The American policy at the time however made no intention to establish any solid presence in Asia and the Pacific.[50] By 1850, the United States recognised the status of Brooke's kingdom as an independent state.[51] Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddin II died in 1852 and his position was succeeded by Mumin, which already proven a success in Brooke's efforts to establish a pro-British government in Brunei.[52] The new Sultan then ceded Saribas and Skrang districts to Brooke in 1853 due to conflict with pirates which later became the Second Division.[33][53]

Three major rebellions led by Rentap (1853),[54] Liu Shan Bang (1857)[55][56] and Syarif Masahor (1860)[57] greatly shaking the kingdom administration together with the stagnant economic condition at the time that causing Brooke to be plagued by debt.[58] Brooke are driven into planning to ceding his kingdom to the British to settling his debt; while although the decision are supported by Britain's member of parliaments (MPs) and businessmen, it was rejected by Prime Minister Derby who feared that the introduction of British taxation system will shocking the kingdom residents more as they already exercising their own system under the Rajahs.[59] Brooke then thinking to selling his kingdom to France, Russia or to Brunei again or also to other European powers rather than to the neighbouring Dutch who are readily to retake his kingdom.[59] Brooke intention had already been dislike by other neighbouring British Governors with Labuan Governor Hennessy had express his feelings that although he keep a high respect towards the Rajah he considering the kingdom as only a vassal state of Brunei as its status for being independent from the British could be sold by Brooke or turn to be a protectorate of other European nations by the owner wish.[60]

Territorial gains from 1841 to 1905.

Prior to the ongoing piracy suppression, a major battle with the Illanuns of Moro pirates from the southern Philippines occurred in the mid November 1862.[61] In 1864, the United Kingdom began to appoint a consul to Sarawak and recognise the kingdom,[51][62] while Netherlands refused to recognise the state.[63] Following the recognition from Britain, Brooke expand his kingdom size at the expense of Brunei by reducing the territorial of the latter.[64] In 1861, he acquired the vast Rajang River basin, which subsequently became the Third Division.[33][53] The expansion continued even after his death in 1868; with his position was succeeded by his nephew, Charles Brooke.[65][66]

Under Charles administration, the kingdom economy grew rapidly with the foundation of oil, introduction of rubber and the construction of public infrastructures as his main priorities is to stabilise the economic situation and reducing government debts.[67][68][69] He encouraged the migration of Chinese to boost the economy, especially in agricultural sectors;[70][71] where most of them settled around Kuching (mainly Hokkien and Teochew), Sibu (mainly Fuzhou) and Sri Aman (mainly Teochew).[72][73] Charles was trusted and respected for his fairness and strict to order although not so popular among the local Malays than his uncle, while being a close friend to the Dayaks.[74] Sarawak was very prospered under his rule as with the stability, the kingdom did not need to seek protectorate from any European powers with his request for protection from the British in 1869 and 1879 were also rejected.[74] Even with the independent status, Charles continued to seek protectorate from the British for the greater security of protection on the west coast of Borneo, until the British finally decided to give a protectorate status on 14 June 1888.[5][74] He ruled Sarawak until his death in 1917 and was succeeded by his son, Charles Vyner Brooke.[75]

World War II and decline

Lutong oil refinery and storage facilities been destroyed by the British before the arrival of the Japanese.

Following World War II, the Empire of Japan began to expand their range in Asia and the Pacific.[76] Vyner became aware of the growing threats and begun to institute reforms.[77] Under the protectorate treaty, Britain are responsible to Sarawak defence.[78] However, as they did not have adequate resources to mount effective defence due to most of its forces been deployed to the war in Europe against the Nazi Germany and Kingdom of Italy; the defence of the kingdom are being depended on a single Indian infantry regiment, the 2/15 Punjab Regiment together with the local forces of Sarawak and from Brunei.[78] As Sarawak has a significant amount of oil refineries in Miri and Lutong, the British feared that this supplies will fall to the Japanese thus instruct the infantry to carry out the scorched earth policy.[78][79]

The official surrender ceremony of the Japanese to the Australian Imperial Force (AIF) on board the HMAS Kapunda in Kuching on 11 September 1945.

By 16 December 1941, a strong forces of Japanese navy detachment through a Japanese destroyer Sagiri arrived on Miri from Cam Ranh Bay of French Indochina.[79][80] The Japanese then launch their air attack to Kuching on 19 December, bombing parts of the town airfield while machine-gunned people in the town streets.[81] The attack created panic and drove residents to the rural areas.[82] A Dutch submarine HNLMS K XVI managed to bring down the Japanese from Miri but with the arrival of another Japanese destroyer Shirakumo together with other ships, they secured the town on 24 December.[83] From 7 January 1942, Japanese troops in Sarawak crossed the border of Dutch Borneo and proceed to neighbouring North Borneo. The 2/15 Punjab Regiment were forced to withdrew to Dutch Borneo and later surrendered on 9 March after most of the Allies have surrendered in Java.[81] A steamship of the kingdom, SS Vyner Brooke was sunk during its duty to evacuating nurses and wounded servicemen after the fall of Singapore where most of its surviving crews were massacred in Bangka Island.[84]

The hoisting of the kingdom flag by the ex-internees of Allied prisoner of war (POW) compound in Kuching, 12 September 1945.

Without air protection, the kingdom together with rest of the island fall to the Japanese and Vyner took sanctuary in Australia.[85] Many of the British and Australian soldiers captured after the fall of Malaya and Singapore were brought to Borneo and held as a prisoner of war (POW) in Batu Lintang camp of Sarawak and Sandakan camp in neighbouring North Borneo. The Japanese military authorities placed the southern part of Borneo under the navy, while its army were responsible for the management in the north.[86] As part of the Allied Campaign to retake their possessions in the East, Allied forces then sent to Borneo under the mission of Borneo Campaign to liberate the island. The Australian Imperial Force (AIF) plays a significant role in the mission. The Allied Z Special Unit provided intelligence gatherings and other information from the Japanese that could facilitated the AIF landings. Most of the major towns of Sarawak are bombed during these period.[82] The war ended on 15 August 1945 following the Japanese surrender and the administration of Sarawak was undertaken by the British Military Administration (BMA) from September. Vyner returned to administer the territory but deciding to cede the entire kingdom to the crown colony government on 1 July 1946 due to the lack of resources to finance the reconstruction cost.[87][88][89]

Government

The Astana, the palace of the White Rajahs since Charles Brooke reign; c. 1896.

The kingdom was governed by three generations of the White Rajahs without any British government intervention as during the period of the first Rajah, it has already facing difficulties to gain Britain's financial support due to the lack of recognition as well constant challenges from the locals.[90] It was only under the second Rajah the government administration began to be reformed after the kingdom been recognised, with a civil service known as the Sarawak Administrative Service began to be established.[90] The civil service recruited Europeans, mainly British officers to run district outstations where the residents became exposed to and trained in many British and European methods and culture, while retaining the customs of the indigenous people. After the acquisition of more territory, the kingdom is divided into five divisions, each headed by a Resident.[91] The Rajahs also encouraged the establishment of schools, healthcare services and transport.[92]

The government working to restore peace where piracy and tribal feuds had grown rampant and its success depended ultimately on the co-operation of the native village headmen, while the Native Officers acted as a bridge.[93] The Sarawak Rangers was established in 1862 as a para-military force of the kingdom.[94] It was superseded by the Sarawak Constabulary in 1932 as a police force,[95] with 900 members mainly comprising Dayaks and Malays.[96]

The Kuching General Post Office building, built in 1931 with neoclassical architecture; pictured in 2015.

Under the protectorate governance, all powers are conducted under the purview of the British government although it is governed as an independent state by the Rajahs with British protection.[5] According to an agreement signed on 14 June 1888, the treaty stipulated:

Agreement between the British Government and the Rajah of Sarawak for the establishment of a British Protectorate. —Signed at London, 14 June 1888.[5]


I. The State of Sarawak shall continue to be governed and administered by the said Rajah and his successors as an independent State under the protection of Great Britain; but such protection shall confer no right on Her Majesty's Government to interfere with the internal administration of the State further than is herein provided.
II. In case any question should hereafter arise respecting the rights of succession to the present or any future Ruler of Sarawak, such question shall be referred to Her Majesty's Government for decision.
III. The relations between the State of Sarawak and all foreign States, including the States of Brunei and North Borneo, shall be conducted by Her Majesty's Government, or in accordance with its directions; and if any difference should arise between the Government of Sarawak and that of any other State, the Government of Sarawak agrees to abide by the decision of Her Majesty's Government, and to take all necessary to give effect thereto.
IV. Her Majesty's Government shall have the right to establish British Consular officers in any part of the State of Sarawak, who shall receive exequaturs in the name of the Government of Sarawak. They shall enjoy whatever privileges are usually granted to the Consular officers, and shall be entitled to hoist the British flag over their residences and public offices.
V. British subjects, commerce, and shipping shall enjoy the same right, privileges, and advantages as the subjects, commerce, and shipping of the most favoured nation, as well as any other rights, privileges, and advantages which may be enjoyed by the subjects, commerce and shipping of the State of Sarawak.
VI. No cession or other alienation of any part of the territory of the State of Sarawak shall be made by the Rajah or his successors to any foreign State, or the subjects or the citizens thereof, without the consent of Her Majesty's Government; but this restriction shall not apply to ordinary grants or leases of lands or houses to private individuals for purposes of residence, agriculture, commerce, or other business.

Economy

Since the acquisition of Sarawak first territory in the First Division, Brooke gained large quantity of antimony from mines around the area; although it was leased in 1846 as freedom of trade is guaranteed by a treaty of the territory with the local natives are freely to operate the mines.[97] By the time of his arrival, a land tenure system known as the Native Customary Rights (NCR) have been practised by the indigenous communities.[98][99][100] As Brooke's main priority is to abolishing headhunting among the indigenous communities in the interior, the kingdom authorities conduct persistent raids to Sea Dayak villages and forcing them to practice horticultural modes as a new method to sustain their lives.[101] This was done as most of the Sea Dayak at the time refused to abandon the culture and only agreed after been stopped through their major rebellion.[102] Other Dayaks like the Land Dayak were also previously involved in headhunting, but most of them are peaceful people who abide by the laws and only attacking if attacked by other tribes;[103] which subsequently became Brooke loyal followers as they agreed to leaving the former culture.[28][29] Most Malays coastal villages were also raided as part of the kingdom's policy to combating piracy and slavery.[101] These policy turned to be successful but the kingdom was plagued by high debt as a result from several major rebellions in response to the ongoing supression campaign especially with the stagnant economic situation at the time.[58]

The Main Bazaar in Chinatown, Kuching, c. 1900s.

A large number of Chinese began to settled in the kingdom during the reign of the first Rajah, which encouraged by Brooke to boost the kingdom economy and influencing the indigenous communities to abandoning their previous activities (like headhunting, piracy, slavery etc.) by participating in the modern economic activities.[104] Most of those who come from the first migration are miners and originated from Sambas in neighbouring Dutch Borneo where they later formed a Kongsi system in Bau.[105] The immigration were continued under the second Rajah, who encourage more Chinese to migrate and boosting the kingdom agricultural sectors;[70][71] although there were also conflict occurred between the Brooke's government and the Chinese in 1857 which are believed to be related with the Second Opium War,[106] or several other reasons.[107] The second Rajah working to stabilise the economy and reducing government debts, with the kingdom economy grew significantly under his reign; with total exports of $386,439 and imports of $414,756 in 1863.[74]

By 1869, the total trade value reached $3,262,500.[74] Along the same year, the second Rajah also invited Chinese pepper and gambier-growers from Singapore to cultivate black pepper and gambier in Sarawak.[108][109] By the early 20th century, Sarawak became one of the world major producer of pepper.[110] The kingdom was a relative latecomer to natural rubber boom as the second Rajah preferred to develop the cultivation of lands for the good of its inhabitants than offering the land to European companies.[111] During his reign, there were only five large rubber estates around Sarawak.[112] While oil began to be discovered in his final years.[113] From the 1930s, the kingdom became the centre of production for raw materials with Singapore as the main trade partner as most Chinese businesses in the kingdom relied the island as an outlet for their commodity.[96][114]

Currency

One Sarawak dollar, 1935.

A dollar was made from 1858 and remained at par with the Straits dollar. Different notes had been issued by Sarawak Government Treasury throughout the administration with the earliest notes are embedded with English, Jawi and Chinese characters. From 1880s, the notes background featuring the Rajahs portrait and their arms.[115]

Society

A $1 revenue stamp issued in 1918, featuring Charles Vyner Brooke.

Demography

In 1841, Sarawak has a number of indigenous people around 8,000.[64] The Dayaks are the largest indigenous group in the interior: comprising Iban, Bidayuh and other interior tribes like the Kayan, Kelabit, Kenyah, Lun Bawang and Penan, while coastal areas are dominated by the Sarawak local Malays, Melanau, Bruneian and Kedayan.[96] The government of Sarawak welcoming the migration of Chinese workers to boost the economic sectors.[70][71] Following various immigration schemes initiated by the Rajahs, the population increase to 150,000 in 1848,[116] 300,000 in 1893,[117] 475,000 in 1933,[96] and 600,000 in 1945.[64]

Public service infrastructure

It was during the reign of the Second Rajah where public infrastructure are given attention.[118] From the 1930s, telegraph line were available to connecting the kingdom with Singapore.[119] Wireless telegraph station are located throughout all major towns in Sarawak.[96] A railway system known as the Sarawak Government Railway was established in 1915 although it was ordered to closed by the third Rajah in the 1930s as it had made substantial losses.[120][121] Postal service were also available throughout the administration.[122]

Media

The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society (since 1820), the Sarawak Gazette (since 1870),[123] and the Sarawak Museum Journal (since 1911) hold a significant amount of information on Sarawak before and during the Rajahs administration.

See also

Footnotes

  1. ↑ Barley 2013, pp. 101.
  2. 1 2 Straumann 2014, pp. 63.
  3. ↑ Storey 2012, pp. 7.
  4. ↑ Great Britain. War Office 1942, pp. 123.
  5. 1 2 3 4 Great Britain. Foreign Office 1888, pp. 239.
  6. ↑ Pybus 1996, pp. 9.
  7. 1 2 Foggo 1853, pp. 7.
  8. 1 2 Hazis 2012, pp. 66.
  9. 1 2 3 4 5 Storey 2012, pp. 6.
  10. ↑ Boyle 1868, pp. 204.
  11. ↑ Fraser 2013, pp. 133.
  12. 1 2 anon 1846, pp. 357.
  13. 1 2 3 4 Boyle 1868, pp. 205.
  14. ↑ anon 1836, pp. 207.
  15. ↑ Reece 2004, pp. 7.
  16. ↑ Runciman 2010, pp. 45.
  17. ↑ Knapman 2016, pp. 156.
  18. 1 2 Eliot, Bickersteth & Ballard 1996, pp. 555.
  19. 1 2 Hilton & Tate 1966, pp. 79.
  20. 1 2 3 Ring, Watson & Schellinger 2012, pp. 160.
  21. ↑ Miller 1970, pp. 48.
  22. 1 2 Leake 1989, pp. 27.
  23. ↑ Chang 1995, pp. 15.
  24. ↑ Walker 2002, pp. 26.
  25. ↑ Walker 2002, pp. 29.
  26. 1 2 Webster 1998, pp. 130.
  27. 1 2 3 Saunders 2013, pp. 74.
  28. 1 2 anon 1862, pp. 110.
  29. 1 2 Morrison 1993, pp. 11.
  30. ↑ Andaya 2016, pp. 134.
  31. ↑ anon 1879, pp. 633.
  32. ↑ Wesseling 2015, pp. 208.
  33. 1 2 3 Lea 2001, pp. 17.
  34. ↑ Baynes 1902, pp. 307.
  35. 1 2 Saunders 2013, pp. 75.
  36. ↑ Knapman 2016, pp. 197.
  37. ↑ Irwin 1955, pp. 127.
  38. 1 2 3 4 Saunders 2013, pp. 76.
  39. ↑ Belcher & Adams 1848, pp. 146.
  40. ↑ Bickersteth & Hinton 1996, pp. 306.
  41. ↑ Talib 1999, pp. 5.
  42. 1 2 3 4 5 Gott 2011, pp. 374.
  43. ↑ Miller 1970, pp. 95.
  44. 1 2 Royal Asiatic Society 1960, pp. 292.
  45. ↑ Mills 1966, pp. 258.
  46. 1 2 Miller 1970, pp. 94.
  47. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Saunders 2013, pp. 77.
  48. ↑ Sidhu 2016, pp. 154.
  49. 1 2 3 4 Saunders 2013, pp. 78.
  50. ↑ Saunders 2013, pp. 79.
  51. 1 2 Great Britain. Colonial Office 1962, pp. 300.
  52. ↑ Saunders 2013, pp. 80.
  53. 1 2 Wright 1988, pp. 95.
  54. ↑ Cramb 2007, pp. 116.
  55. ↑ Chang 1995, pp. 45-47.
  56. ↑ Chin 1996, pp. 23.
  57. ↑ Reece 2004, pp. 35.
  58. 1 2 Press 2017, pp. 23.
  59. 1 2 Press 2017, pp. 24.
  60. ↑ Wright 1988, pp. 94.
  61. ↑ McDougall 1882.
  62. ↑ Madden, Fieldhouse & Darwin 1985, pp. 556.
  63. ↑ Baring-Gould & Bampfylde 1909, pp. 128.
  64. 1 2 3 Purcell 1965, pp. 58.
  65. ↑ Pybus 1996, pp. 51.
  66. ↑ Sidhu 2016, pp. 83.
  67. ↑ la Boda 1994, pp. 498.
  68. ↑ Rowthorn, Cohen & Williams 2008, pp. 25.
  69. ↑ Welman 2017, pp. 176.
  70. 1 2 3 Ledesma, Lewis & Savage 2003, pp. 401.
  71. 1 2 3 Cramb 2007, pp. 124.
  72. ↑ Yong 1994, pp. 35.
  73. ↑ Cotterell 2011, pp. 135.
  74. 1 2 3 4 5 Wright 1988, pp. 85.
  75. ↑ Olson & Shadle 1996, pp. 200.
  76. ↑ Ooi 1999, pp. 1.
  77. ↑ Shepley 2015, pp. 46.
  78. 1 2 3 Kratoska 2013, pp. 136.
  79. 1 2 Rottman 2002, pp. 206.
  80. ↑ Williams 1999, pp. 6.
  81. 1 2 Tarling 2001, pp. 91.
  82. 1 2 Tan 2011.
  83. ↑ Jackson 2006, pp. 440.
  84. ↑ Pateman 2017, pp. 42.
  85. ↑ Bayly & Harper 2005, pp. 217.
  86. ↑ Ooi 2013, pp. 15.
  87. ↑ Yust 1947, pp. 382.
  88. ↑ Lockard 2009, pp. 102.
  89. ↑ Sarawak State Government 2014.
  90. 1 2 Talib 1993, pp. 6.
  91. ↑ Hock 2011.
  92. ↑ Aspalter 2017, pp. 112.
  93. ↑ Talib 1999, pp. 47.
  94. ↑ Tarling 2003, pp. 319.
  95. ↑ Ellinwood Jr. & Enloe 1978, pp. 201.
  96. 1 2 3 4 5 Epstein 2016, pp. 102.
  97. ↑ Brooke (3) 1853, pp. 159.
  98. ↑ Cooke 2006, pp. 46.
  99. ↑ Eguavoen & Laube 2010, pp. 216.
  100. ↑ Uncle DI 2017.
  101. 1 2 Tajuddin 2012, pp. 35.
  102. ↑ Eliot, Bickersteth & Ballard 1996, pp. 297.
  103. ↑ Ling 2013, pp. 290.
  104. ↑ Brooke (1) 1853, pp. 101.
  105. ↑ Bissonnette, Bernard & Koninck 2011, pp. 59.
  106. ↑ Baker 2008, pp. 160.
  107. ↑ Ringgit 2015.
  108. ↑ Bulbeck et al. 1998, pp. 68.
  109. ↑ Cramb 2007, pp. 128.
  110. ↑ Lockard 2009, pp. 101.
  111. ↑ Ishikawa 2010, pp. 72.
  112. ↑ Bissonnette, Bernard & de Koninck 2011, pp. 59.
  113. ↑ Crisswell 1978, pp. 216.
  114. ↑ Shiraishi 2009, pp. 34.
  115. ↑ Cuhaj 2014, pp. 1058.
  116. ↑ Whitaker 1848, pp. 476.
  117. ↑ Appleton 1893, pp. 489.
  118. ↑ Jackson 2007.
  119. ↑ Kaplan & Roberts 1955, pp. 115.
  120. ↑ Durand & Curtis 2014, pp. 175.
  121. ↑ Sarawak Government Railway 2015.
  122. ↑ Forrester-Wood 1959, pp. 575.
  123. ↑ Sarawak Gazette 1870.

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Further reading

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