Kashmiris

Kashmiris
کٲشُر لُکھ
कॉशुर लुख

Regions with significant populations
India	5,527,698 (2001)*[1]
Pakistan	132,450 (1998)*[2]
Languages
Kashmiri Hindi, Urdu, also spoken widely as second language[3]
Religion
Predominantly: Islam Minorities: Hinduism[3]
Related ethnic groups
Other Dard people
*The population figures are only for the number of speakers of the Kashmiri language. May not include ethnic Kashmiris who no longer speak Kashmiri language.

The Kashmiris (Kashmiri: کٲشُر لُکھ / कॉशुर लुख) are an ethnic group native to the Kashmir Valley, in the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir, who speak Kashmiri, an Indo-Aryan Dardic language.^[4] The bulk of Kashmiri people predominantly live in the Kashmir Valley–which is the 'actual' Kashmir and does not include the other territories of the former princely state of Jammu and Kashmir (i.e. Jammu, Gilgit-Baltistan, Azad Kashmir and Ladakh).^{[upper-alpha 1]} Other ethnic groups living in the Jammu and Kashmir state include Gujjars,^[6] Dogras^[7] Paharis, Baltis and Ladakhis.^[8] Although some residents of Azad Kashmir call themselves 'Kashmiri', most residents of Azad Kashmir are not actually ethnic Kashmiris.^{[upper-alpha 2]}

Whilst Kashmiris are native to the Kashmir Valley, smaller populations of Kashmiris also live in the remaining districts of Jammu and Kashmir. Ethnic Kashmiris can be found in the Chenab region's Doda, Ramban, Bhadarwah and Kishtwar districts and in the Neelam Valley and Leepa Valley of northern Azad Kashmir. Since 1947, many ethnic Kashmiris are also found in Pakistan.^{[upper-alpha 3]} Many ethnic Kashmiris from the Kashmir Valley migrated to the Punjab region during the Dogra, Sikh and Afghan rule of Kashmir.^{[upper-alpha 4][11][12][upper-alpha 5]} Most Kashmiris today are Sunni Muslim^{[upper-alpha 6]} but a sizable Hindu community also exists. Pure ethnic Kashmiri Muslims are descended from Kashmiri Hindus and are also known as 'Sheikhs'.^{[upper-alpha 7][upper-alpha 8][upper-alpha 9]} Common surnames among these people include Bhat/Butt, Dar, Lone, Malik etc.^{[upper-alpha 10][upper-alpha 11][20]}

Origins

The Hindu caste system of the Kashmir region was influenced by the influx of Buddhism from the time of Asoka, around the third century BCE, and a consequence of this was that the traditional lines of varna were blurred, with the exception of that for the Brahmins, who remained aloof from the changes.^[21][22] Another notable feature of early Kashmiri society was the relative high regard in which women were held when compared to their position in other communities of the period.^[23]

A historically contested region, Northern India was subject to attack from Turkic and Arab regimes from the eighth century onwards, but they generally ignored the mountain-circled Kashmir Valley in favour of easier pickings elsewhere. It was not until the fourteenth century that Muslim rule was finally established in the Valley and when this happened it did not occur primarily as a consequence of invasion so much as because of internal problems resulting from the weak rule and corruption endemic in the Hindu Lohara dynasty.^[24][25] Mohibbul Hasan describes this collapse as

The Dãmaras (feudal chiefs) grew powerful, defied royal authority, and by their constant revolts plunged the country into confusion. Life and property were not safe, agriculture declined, and there were periods when trade came to a standstill. Socially and morally too the court and the country had sunk to the depths of degradations.^[25]

The Brahmins had something to be particularly unhappy about during the reign of the last Lohara king, for Sūhadeva chose to include them in his system of onerous taxation, whereas previously they appear to have been exempted.^[26]

History

Arrival of Islam and Shah Mir Dynasty (1320–1580s)

Islam arrived in Kashmir starting with the conversion in 1320 of Kashmir's Buddhist ruler, Rinchan, at the hands of the saint, Sayyid Bilal Shah (also known as Bulbul Shah). After conversion to Islam he called himself Malik Sadur-ud-Din and became the first Muslim ruler of Kashmir. In 1339, Shams-ud-Din Shah Mir established the Shah Mir dynasty in Kashmir. Islam grew in the 14th century under the Shah Mir dynasty and numerous Muslim ulama from Central Asia came to preach in Kashmir. Some of the famous ulama who propagated Islam in Kashmir included Sayyid Jalaluddin, Sayyid Tajuddin, Sayyid Ḥusayn Simani, Sayyid Ali Ḥamadani, Mir Muḥammad Hamadani, and Shaykh Nuruddin.^{[upper-alpha 12]} Sayyid Ali Hamadani (also known as Shah-yi Hamadan), alongside hundreds of his followers, converted thousands of Kashmiris to Islam and also imparted Persian influences on the local Kashmiri culture.^[28] His son, Sayyid Muḥammad Hamadani, encouraged Kashmir's Muslim ruler Sikander Butshikan (who reigned from 1389–1413) to enforce Islamic law and establish the office of Shaykh al-Islam i.e. the chief religious authority. The actions of Sultan Sikandar Butshikan (1389–1413), the seventh Muslim ruler in Kashmir, were also significant to the area. The Sultan has been referred to as an iconoclast because of his destruction of many non-Muslim religious symbols and the manner in which he forced the population to convert or flee. Many followers of the traditional religions who did not convert to Islam instead migrated to other parts of India. By the late 1400s the majority of the population had embraced Islam.^{[upper-alpha 13]} Since the arrival of invaders and the start of religious conflicts, before the Partition of India, many Kashmir Hindus and Buddhists migrated to other regions.^[29][30][31]

Chak Rule

In 1540, the Mughal general Mirza Muhammad Haidar Dughlat invaded Kashmir but his rule was brief and overthrown because of his persecution of Shafi'is and Shias.^[32] In 1557 the Shah Miri dynasty was overthrown by the Chaks who were foreigners to Kashmir and originated from Baltistan. Since they were from outside Kashmir they were not interested in the Kashmiri population's welfare. The Chak rulers, who were Shia, persecuted their Sunni subjects and this caused Sunni scholars to flee to safer environs. Some disenchanted Sunnis, such as notable Sunni scholar, Sheikh Yaqub Sarfi, went to the court of Akbar and invited the Mughals to conquer Kashmir and overthrow Chak rule on certain conditions. These conditions included a guarantee of Kashmiri rights such as freedom of religion for all of Kashmir's population. Shaikh Yaqub Sarfi also forbade Sunnis from carrying out any reprisal against Shias and he devoted his life to restoring peace and communal harmony between the Sunnis and Shias of Kashmir.^{[upper-alpha 14][upper-alpha 15]}

Mughal rule (1580s–1750s)

Kashmiri historians see Mughal rule as the beginning of the end of Kashmiri independence.^[35] The Mughal Emperor Akbar succeeded in invading the Kashmir Valley, despite tough Kashmiri resistance,^{[upper-alpha 16]} due to internal Sunni–Shia divisions amongst Kashmiris.^[36]

The anti-Shia policies of Mirza Haidar Dughlat and the anti-Sunni policies of the Chaks had broken Kashmiri unity, thus paving the way for the Mughal occupation of Kashmir.^[37] Akbar's victory brought an end to indigenous Kashmiri Muslim rule.^{[upper-alpha 17]} Christopher Snedden states that the Mughals began a process of psychological warfare against Kashmiris to strip them of their martial capabilities. After this, outsiders started considering Kashmiris a 'cowardly' and 'non-martial' race.^[39]

Conversely, Akbar also reduced the land revene demand from two-thirds, as it was earlier, to one-half of the produce.^[40] Kashmiri Hindus also felt a respite from the severe persecution they faced under the earlier Muslim rule.^[41]

The Mughals maintained a large military presence in the valley and were not interested in developing the productive sectors although they patronised art and constructed some pleasure gardens and a few mosques. While many histories of Kashmir consider the Kashmir Valley's incorporation into Mughal India as a decline of Kashmiri independence and cultural identity, Chitralekha Zutshi argues that Kashmiri poets began to consciously articulate their sense of regional belonging during the Mughal rule. According to M.J. Akbar, the clash of cultures between Delhi and Kashmir resulted in Kashmiris wishing for nothing more than to be left alone.^{[upper-alpha 18]}

Afghan Rule (1750s–1819)

In 1751, the Afghans, ruled by Ahmad Shah Durrani, absorbed Kashmir into the Durrani Empire. The Afghans were cruel, especially to Kashmir's Hindus. However, Kashmiri historians state that the Afghans were brutally repressive to all Kashmiris, regardless of religion.^{[upper-alpha 19]} The Afghans extorted money from the locals and both Kashmiri men and women lived in fear of their lives. The Afghans sent many Kashmiris as slaves to Afghanistan. During Afghan dominance, the shawl industry declined, probably due to heavy taxes. According to scholars Chitralekha Zutshi and Janet Rizvi, the Afghan brutality caused many Kashmiri shawl-weavers to flee to Punjab.^{[upper-alpha 20][upper-alpha 21]} However, due to the administrative experience of Kashmiri Pandits, the Afghans utilised their services. Kashmiri Pandits were not prevented from entering into government service. George Foster, who visited Kashmir during the Afghan rule, documented the oppression of Kashmiris by Afghans. He writes:^[44]

The Afghans would never issue an order without a blow of the side of hatchet (battle axe). Karim Dad Khan in a mood of enjoyment would tie up the inhabitants by back in pairs and drop them in the river.

By 1819 the Sikh Empire's Maharajah Ranjit Singh finally succeeded in taking Kashmir. Initially, Kashmiris felt relieved as they had suffered under the Afghans.^{[upper-alpha 22]}

Sikh Empire (1820–1846)

In 1819 Kashmir came under Maharajah Ranjit Singh's Sikh Empire and Sikh rule over Kashmir lasted for 27 years till 1846. These 27 years of Sikh rule saw 10 Governors in Kashmir. Of these 10 Governors five were Hindus, three were Sikhs and two were Muslims.^[46] Due to the fact that Kashmiris had suffered under the Afghan rulers, they initially welcomed the Sikh rule.^{[upper-alpha 23]} However, the Sikhs oppressed the population.^[47] Scholar Christopher Snedden states that the Sikhs exploited Kashmiris regardless of religion.^[48]

During the Sikh rule the mostly illiterate Muslim population suffered under heavy taxation, rural indebtedness and discrimination.^[49] The Sikhs had enacted a number of anti-Muslim policies, thus subjecting the Muslim majority population of the Valley to a number of hardships in the practice of their religion. The central mosque, Jama Masjid, was closed for 20 years and Muslims were prohibited from issuing the azan (call to prayer). If a Sikh murdered a Hindu the compensation amount allowed was four rupees. However, if a Sikh murdered a Muslim the compensation amount allowed was only two rupees. According to Prem Nath Bazaz the effect of the Sikh rule was that the people of the valley came to be known as 'zulum parast' (worshippers of tyranny), forgot their glorious martial traditions and became timid and cowardly.^{[upper-alpha 24]}

During the Sikh rule, Europeans who visited the Valley documented the deprivation and starvation and also wrote of the abject poverty of the peasantry and the exorbitant taxes under the Sikhs. According to European traveler Moorcraft, no more than one-sixteenth of the cultivable land surface was under cultivation and due to starvation many people had fled to India.^{[upper-alpha 25]} Kashmiri histories also emphasise the wretchedness of life for common Kashmiris during the Sikh rule. According to them, the peasantry became mired in poverty and migrations of Kashmiri peasants to the plains of Punjab reached high proportions. Several European travelers' accounts from the period agree and provide evidence for such assertions.^{[upper-alpha 26]} When Moorcroft left the Valley in 1823, about 500 emigrants accompanied him across the Pir Panjal Pass.^{[upper-alpha 27]} The Sikhs lost their independence with the Battle of Subraon. In 1846 Kashmir came under the rule of Gulab Singh, a Hindu Dogra Maharajah under the British suzerainty.^[48][52]

1833 Famine

The 1833 famine caused many people to leave the Kashmir Valley and migrate to the Punjab, with the majority of weavers leaving Kashmir. Weavers settled down for generations in the cities of Punjab such as Jammu and Nurpur.^{[upper-alpha 28]} Due to the famine, the Punjabi city of Amritsar witnessed a large influx of Kashmiris.^{[upper-alpha 29][upper-alpha 30]} Thousands of people died during the famine of 1833 and both the famine and emigration reduced the population to one-fourth by 1836. Hindus were not much affected but Muslims were and had to leave in large numbers.^{[upper-alpha 31]}

Dogra Regime (1846–1947)

The Muslim population suffered severe oppression under Hindu rule and were subjected to heavy taxation, discriminatory laws and forced unpaid labour.^{[upper-alpha 32]} The 100 year Dogra regime was a disaster for the Muslim peasantry of Kashmir Valley.^{[upper-alpha 33]} Walter Lawrence described the conditions of the Valley's peasantry as being 'desperate' and noted that the Valley's peasantry attributed their miseries to the Maharajah's deputies rather than the rulers themselves. The state officials apparently kept the rulers from knowing the conditions of the Muslim peasantry in the Valley.^[58]

Lawrence in particular criticised the state officials who belonged to the Kashmiri Pandit community.^[58] Lawrence provided evidence that while many of the Kashmiri Pandit officials may have been ''individually gentle and intelligent, as a body they were cruel and oppressive.'' Scholar Ayesha Jalal states that the Maharajahs nurtured ties with Kashmiri Pandits and their Dogra kinsfolk in Jammu to trample on the rights of their subjects.^[59] Christopher Snedden also states that the Kashmiri Muslims were often exploited by the Kashmiri Pandit officials ^[36] Kashmiri Pandits had entered the state administrative machinery during the Afghan period and by the Dogra period they had become entrenched in the lower levels of the state bureaucracy. However, the Pandits were, like all Kashmiris, excluded from the upper sections of the bureaucracy, although they continued to exercise control in the countryside.^[60]

Wingate and Lawrence spent many months in the rural hinterland of Kashmir and in an unprecedented manner brought to the fore the tensions that underlay Kashmiri society between the interests of the Hindu Pandit community and the numerically preponderant Kashmiri Muslim cultivators. However, while both acknowledged the oppression of Kashmiri Muslims, the solutions offered by Lawrence and Wingate differed from each other. While both acknowledged the responsibility of the Kashmiri Pandit community in exacerbating the situation of the Muslim cultivating classes, Wingate was far more uncompromising in demanding that the privileges of the Pandit community be eliminated. However, Lawrence proposed to provide relief to Kashmir's cultivating class without eliminating the privileges of the Kashmiri Pandits.^{[upper-alpha 34]}

Gawasha Nath Kaul described the poor conditions of the Valley's Muslim population in his book Kashmir Then And Now and in it he wrote that 90 percent of Muslim households were mortgaged to Hindu moneylenders. Muslims were non-existent in the State's civil administration and were barred from officer positions in the military.^{[upper-alpha 35]}

Prem Nath Bazaz, one of the few Kashmiri Pandits who joined the movement for change, described the poor conditions of the Valley's Muslim population as such:^[10]

The poverty of the Muslim masses is appalling. Dressed in rags and barefoot, a Muslim peasant presents the appearance of a starved beggar...Most are landless laborers, working as serfs for absentee landlords.

1878 Famine

There was a famine in Kashmir between 1877-9 and the death toll from this famine was overwhelming by any standards. Some authorities suggested that the population of Srinagar had been reduced by half while others estimated a diminution by three-fifths of the entire population of the Valley.^[61] During the famine of 1877-9 not a single Pandit died of starvation during these annihilative years for the Muslim cultivators, according to reports received by Lawrence. During the famine the office of Prime Minister was held by a Kashmiri Pandit, Wazir Punnu, who is said to have declared that there ''was no real distress and that he wished that no Musulman might be left alive from Srinagar to Rambhan (in Jammu).''^{[upper-alpha 36]}

Despite the ban on leaving the state, everyone wanted to leave the Valley either temporarily or permanently. Lawrence described the situation when the government of the day lifted the ban on free movement after the deadly famine:^[63]

The lifting of the ban witnessed a stampede, it appeared as if a bund had suddenly collapsed, for a sea of humanity, drawn from every town and village, was moving towards the snow clad passes, on their way to the land of hope – the British India…the migration was so extensive that according to the 1891 census Report of Punjab, 1,11,775 Muslims born in Kashmir were counted as having settled in the Punjab.

When lands fell fallow temporarily during the famine, Pandits took over substantial tracts of them claiming that they were uncultivated waste. Numerous Kashmiri Muslim cultivators who had left the Valley for Punjab to escape the devastation of those years found upon their return that they had been ousted from lands that they had cultivated over generations.^{[upper-alpha 37]}

The Dogra administration's attempts to revive the crippled shawl weaving industry failed as after the famine many weavers left the Valley permanently and settled in the Punjabi towns of Amritsar, Lahore, Ludhiana, Nurpur, Gujrat, Gurdaspur, Sialkot, Chamba, Kangra and Simla. The weavers introduced their art to the towns they settled in.^{[upper-alpha 38][upper-alpha 39][upper-alpha 40][upper-alpha 41]}

Thus, in the late nineteenth^{[upper-alpha 42]} and early twentieth centuries,^{[upper-alpha 43]} there had been a significant migration of Kashmiri Muslims from the Kashmir Valley to the Punjab, due to such conditions of famine in the princely state and also because of extreme poverty^[59] and harsh treatment by the Dogra Hindu regime (according to Prem Nath Bazaz the Kashmiri Muslims faced this harsh treatment because of their religion).^{[upper-alpha 44]} According to the 1911 Census there were 177,549 Kashmiri Muslims in the Punjab. With the inclusion of Kashmiri settlements in NWFP this figure rose to 206,180.^{[upper-alpha 45]}

Culture

Cuisine

Kashmiri cuisine holds a unique place among different world cuisines. Rice is the staple food of Kashmiris and has been so since ancient times.^{[upper-alpha 46]} Meat, along with rice, is the most popular food item in Kashmir.^{[upper-alpha 47]} Kashmiris consume meat voraciously.^{[upper-alpha 48]} Despite being Brahmin, Kashmiri Pandits also consume meat heavily.^{[upper-alpha 49]} Salted tea or Noon Chai is the traditional drink and is cooked in a samavar, a Kashmiri tea-pot. Kehwa, traditional green tea with spices and almond, is served on special occasions and festivals. Kashmiri weddings incorporate a traditional feast known as Wazwan,^[75] which typically includes spicy food cooked by the traditional cooks (waz). The concept of Wazwan is 500 years old and originates in Central Asia. Rice and meat are central to the feast.^[76]

Language

Kashmiri (/kæʃˈmɪəri/) (कॉशुर, کأشُر), or Koshur, is spoken primarily in the Kashmir Valley and Chenab regions of Jammu and Kashmir. The language originates from Sanskrit although it received Persian influence during Muslim rule.^{[upper-alpha 50]} According to many linguists, the Kashmiri language is a northwestern Dardic language of the Indo-Aryan family, descending from Middle Indo-Aryan languages. The label "Dardic" indicates a geographical label for the languages spoken in the northwester mountain regions, not a linguistic label.^[4] UCLA estimates the number of speakers as being around 4.4 million, with a preponderance in the Kashmir Valley,^[78] whereas the 2001 census of India records over 5.5 million speakers.^[1] According to the 1998 Census there were 132,450 Kashmiri speakers in Azad Kashmir, Pakistan.^[79] According to Professor Khawaja Abdul Rehman the Kashmiri language is on the verge of dying out in the Neelum Valley.^[80]

Kashmiri is believed to be the only one among the Dardic languages that has a written literature.^[4] Kashmiri literature dates back to over 750 years, comparable to that of most modern languages.^[81] Kashmiri poets and writers like Mehjoor, Abdul Ahad Azad, etc. enriched the literature with their poetry.^[82]

Religious traditions

The Kashmir Valley has a 700-year-old tradition of Sufism. The Kashmir Valley is known as the ‘Pir Waer’, meaning the ‘Alcove of Sufis and Saints’.^[83] Sufism was introduced to Kashmir almost simultaneously with the foundation of Muslim rule.^[84] Kashmiris take pride in inhabiting a cultural space between Sufi Islam and Vedic Hinduism. Both the Pandits and Muslims of Kashmir respect the Shaivite mystic Lala Ded, who symbolises Kashmir's syncretic culture^{[upper-alpha 51]} and both Kashmiri Muslims and Kashmiri Hindus also hold the shrine of Dastgeer Sahib in high esteem. People in Kashmir pay regular visits to the shrines of Sufi saints for peace of mind. It has also been a centuries-old tradition in Kashmir for Sufi disciples to recite special 'Wazaif'.^[83]

In contrast, the introduction of Salafism to Kashmir only goes back to a hundred years. Salafis remained on the fringes of Kashmir's religious and cultural life since belief in the local traditions of Sufi Islam was very strong in the Valley. But this has begun to change since the insurgency in Kashmir since the late 1980s. Pakistani-trained jihadi groups hijacked the local sentiment for freedom and transformed the Kashmiri struggle into a continuation of their holy war for an Islamic caliphate, by playing on the fears of the people that Kashmir's Muslim identity was under threat of erasure.^[86] However, there has also been a proliferation in the number of Barelvi groups, claiming to be custodians of the Valley's Sufi moorings, which have sprung up to challenge the growing power of the Wahhabi faith.^[87]

Salafis say that those who frequent shrines indulge in 'grave worship' (which is forbidden in Islam). But Sufis state that it is incorrect to assume that shrine-goers indulge in grave worship. They say they visit shrines only to seek the blessings of Allah as these places are said to be sacred as great scholars are buried there.^[83]

Kashmiri Hindus are all Saraswat Brahmins, known by their exonym of Pandit. The endonym used within the community is Bhatta. Kashmiri Pandits are chiefly followers of Shiva. Their favourite goddess is Kheer Bhawani. The spring of Kheer Bhawani at the mouth of Sind Valley in Kashmir is considered one of their most important and sacred places. Their branch of Shiva worship is known as Kashmir Saivism. The primary tenet of Kashmir Shaivism is that the individual soul is one with the universal spirit, and each person has to experience and discover this for themselves.

Song is an integral part of several Kashmiri Pandit religious ceremonies. This style of choral singing is called Wanvun.

Arts and crafts

The missionary saint Shah Hamadan brought Pashm to Kashmir from Ladakh and started various pashmina works. Since then pashmina has been used in several textiles in Kashmir and the Valley became a stronghold of pashmina. According to Moti Lal Saqi the shawl industry in Kashmir was made prominent by Mir Syed Ali Hamadani who was accompanied by both religious scholars and expert craftsmen and artists from Central Asia. Hamadani encouraged the practice of shawl weaving and cultural relations were thus established between Kashmir and Central Asia. There is a consensus among researchers that Shah Hamadan's arrival heralded the great advancement in the arts and crafts of Kashmir since 713 people of various professions had entered the Valley, accompanying Shah Hamadan. At the time it is said there were about twelve thousand idol-makers in the valley who had been rendered jobless since Islam does not approve idol-carving. Syed Ali Hamadani assisted them to find earnings by encouraging them to take to stone-carving and other arts and crafts practised by his associates who had accompanied him to Kashmir.^[88]

Characteristics

Physical features

Fair skin and prominent noses are the hallmarks of Kashmirs.^[89][90] Kashmiris have been considered a good-looking race and British memoirs have commented positively on their physique and beauty.^[91] According to the 17th century French traveller, Francois Bernier, the Kashmiris were celebrated for beauty and considered 'well-made' like the Europeans. He records that the Mughals would select wives and concubines from Kashmir so that their children could be whiter than Indians and pass for genuine Mughals.^{[upper-alpha 52][upper-alpha 53]} Marco Polo observed that the beauty of Kashmiri women was superb.^[94] According to Alex Drace-Francis the resemblance between the natives of Kashmir and those of France and Circassia is 'striking'.^[92] Bhandari remarks that one is usually struck by the marked ethnic differences between Kashmiris from other races in India and Pakistan.^{[upper-alpha 54]}

In 2011 a survey by Gilani Research Foundation/Gallup Pakistan found that 55 percent of Pakistanis considered Kashmiris and Pashtuns to be the best looking people in the country. 29 percent rated Kashmiris as the best looking people while 26 percent rated Pashtuns as the best looking people.^{[upper-alpha 55]}

Krams (Surnames)

Kashmiri Hindus are all Saraswat Brahmins and are known by the exonym Pandit. Their surnames (kram) designate their original profession or their ancestors' nicknames. Such surnames include Hakim, Kaul, Dhar, Raina and Teng.^{[upper-alpha 56]} The Muslims living in Kashmir are ethnically of the same stock as the Kashmiri Pandit community and are designated as 'Kashmiri Muslims'. They are descended from the Kashmiri Hindus and are also known as 'Sheikhs'.^[15][16][17]

After Kashmiri Hindus had converted to Islam they largely retained their family names (kram) which indicated their original profession, locality or community.^[18] These included surnames such as Butt,^[18] Pandit (Brahmin), Dar (kshatriya),^[18] Tantre (Tantray), Magre (Magray), Mantu, Wayne, Dar, Nayak, Kaul, Lone, Parry, Rather and Yatoo etc.^[20]

Population

Kashmiri Muslims

The 1921 Census report stated that Kashmiri Muslims formed 31% of the Muslim population of the entire princely state of Jammu and Kashmir.^{[upper-alpha 57]} The 1921 Census report also stated that Kashmiri Muslims are sub-divided into numerous sub-castes such as Bat, Dar, Wain etc.^{[upper-alpha 58]} The Kashmiri Muslim population in the 1921 Census was recorded as 796,804.^[97]

The 1931 Census report also reiterated that the 'Kashmiri Muslim' population occupied the foremost position in the State (other communities in the princely State being Arains, Jats, Sudhans, Gujjars and Rajputs etc.).^{[upper-alpha 59]} It recorded the Kashmiri Muslim population as 1,352,822.^[100] The 1931 Census report explains that the 'phenomenal' increase in the number of Kashmiri Muslims by 556,018 was due to several castes such as Hajjam, Hanji, Sayed and Sheikh being merged into the community.^{[upper-alpha 60][upper-alpha 61]}

The 1931 Census report stated that the Bat, Dar, Ganai, Khan, Lun, Malik, Mir, Pare, Rather, Shah, Sheikh and Wain were the most important sub-castes among Kashmiri Muslims.^[99] Below are the population figures for the various sub-castes among the Kashmiri Muslim population according to the 1931 Census.^[103]

	Ailo	Akhoon	Bat	Chaupan	Dar	Ganai	Hajam	Hanji	Khan	Khawja	Lon	Magre	Malik
Population in entire Jammu and Kashmir State
Male	5807	2715	90477	6045	64446	32441	10371	2334	18195	3236	34312	4523	31211
Female	4622	2383	77751	5208	53906	26800	8504	1780	15770	2669	30055	4145	26743
Population in Kashmir Province
Male	4934	2608	80444	5758	61512	31327	10010	2165	18017	2227	29593	4806	17458
Female	4280	2211	69286	5025	51418	25957	8154	1648	15672	1679	25870	3788	15604

	Mir	Pandit	Parai	Pirzada	Raina	Rather	Rishi	Syed	Shah	Sheikh	Tantrei	Wain	Others
Population in entire Jammu and Kashmir State
Male	55092	1911	8317	4452	2111	21765	5672	6756	10333	40264	6158	39670	222655
Female	47155	1673	7180	3995	1762	17960	4626	5821	9027	34711	6095	32443	189269
Population in Kashmir Province
Male	49586	1902	7852	4444	2105	19643	5374	6059	10289	37320	4875	34080	196596
Female	42285	1670	6739	8995	1755	16572	4469	5298	8977	31787	4790	28622	164986

A few largest of the numerous Kashmiri sub-divisions in the Punjab are as follows, as per the 1881 Punjab Census Report: Bat (24,463), Lun (4,848), Dar (16, 215), Wain (7,419), Mir (19,855) and Sheikh (15,902). The 1881 Census notes that the distribution of these Kashmiri sub-divisions do not appear to follow any rule.^[104]

Kashmiri Pandits

The following data is from the 1931 Census.^[105]

	Kashmiri Pandit
Population in entire Jammu and Kashmir State
Male	35060
Female	28028
Population in Kashmir Province
Male	33590
Female	27136

Diaspora

Muslim

In the early twentieth century, the policies of the Dogra rulers drove many Kashmiri Muslims to flee their native land to Punjab.^[69] Earlier, Afghan brutality and the oppression and poverty during the Sikh rule had also caused Kashmiri migrations to the Punjab.^[11][106] Kashmiri Muslims came to constitute an important segment of several Punjabi cities such as Sialkot, Lahore, Amritsar and Ludhiana.^{[upper-alpha 62]} Kashmiri Muslim immigrants from the Valley were a fifth of Amritsar's Muslim population in 1921.^[107]

With the integration of the Valley and British India, increasing numbers of Muslims had begun travelling to the Punjab. It is noted in the Census of 1921 that, 'the Kashmiri not only contributes to the growth of population in the state, but he adds considerably to the population of all important towns in the Punjab, which are situated along the State border or the main railway line.'^[108] Notable Kashmiri leader Sheikh Abdullah said of Kashmiris in Punjab;^[63]

My stay at Lahore, for other reasons, awakened me from the slumber and made me familiar with new spirits. I saw Kashmiri Muslims in big bands leaving their beautiful land for the hard plains of Punjab in search of livelihood. These labourers had to cross on foot the snowy mountains of Mari and Banihall and had to face thousands of odds in their way. Sometimes, while crossing the mountains, these people were perishing as a result of difficult passes, snowstorms, etc. these unfortunate people were dying unwept and unsung. It was not easy once reaching the plains; there they had to face numerous odds and worries. During the day they wandered through the streets in search of work. Some worked as wood cutters, some as helpers to the shopkeepers, some carried heavy loads on their backs while some of them did grinding. After doing hard work during the day, they earned very little money of which maximum was spent on their meals. They passed their nights either in any inn or mosque, where they were harassed like dumb driven cattle.

Scholar Ayesha Jalal states that Kashmiris faced discrimination in the Punjab as well.^[59] Kashmiris settled for generations in the Punjab were disqualified from taking advantage of the Punjab Land Alienation Act,^{[upper-alpha 63]} and most Kashmiri families in Punjab did not own land.^{[upper-alpha 64]} Historian Zutshi states that Kashmiri Muslims settled in the Punjab retained emotional and familial links to Kashmir and felt obliged to struggle for the freedom of their brethren in the Valley.^{[upper-alpha 65]}

Almost the entire of East Punjab's Muslim population migrated to Pakistan after the partition of India.^[110] Kashmiris who migrated from Amritsar in 1947 have had an extensive influence on Lahore's contemporary cuisine and culture.^{[upper-alpha 66]} The Kashmiris of Amritsar were more steeped in their Kashmiri culture than the Kashmiris already resident in Lahore.^{[upper-alpha 67]} An exclusive research conducted by the “Jang Group and Geo Television Network” has shown that the Kashmiri community has been involved in spearheading the power politics of Lahore district since 1947.^{[upper-alpha 68]} Pockets of Amritsari Kashmiri power can also be found in every major city of central Punjab in Pakistan.^[111]

Notable members of the Kashmiri Muslim diaspora in Punjab include Pakistan's current Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif (paternal and maternal ancestries from Anantnag and Pulwama respectively), Finance Minister Ishaq Dar and politician Khawaja Asif.^{[upper-alpha 69]} Other famous members of the Kashmiri Muslim diaspora in Punjab included Muhammad Iqbal (who was attached to his Brahmin ancestry^{[upper-alpha 70]} and whose poetry displayed a keen sense of belonging to the Kashmir Valley)^{[upper-alpha 71]} and famous writer Saadat Hasan Manto.^{[upper-alpha 72][upper-alpha 73]}

The But/Butt of Punjab were originally Brahmin migrants from Kashmir during 1878 famine.^[119]

— The Journal of the Anthropological Survey of India, Volume 52

Since the 1990s approximately 35,000 Kashmiri Muslims from Indian administered Kashmir have fled to Azad Jammu and Kashmir.^{[upper-alpha 74]}

Hindu

160,000-170,000^{[upper-alpha 75]} Kashmiri Pandits have also fled to India and to other parts of Jammu and Kashmir since 1989. A number of Kashmiri organisations have been existence for over half a century in Delhi, including Kashmiri Pandit Sabha, Panun Kashmir, Vyeth Television, and N. S. Kashmir Research Institute. Notable members of the Kashmiri Pandit diaspora in India include former Indian Prime Ministers Jawaharlal Nehru and Indira Gandhi.

See also

• Kashmir Valley
• Kashmiri language
• Kashmiri diaspora
• Kashmiris of Punjab
• List of Kashmiris
• Theory of Kashmiri descent from lost tribes of Israel
• Kashmiri Muslim tribes from Hindu lineage
• Kashmiriyat
• Kashmir conflict
• 1931 Kashmir agitation
• 1941 Census of Jammu and Kashmir
• All Parties Hurriyat Conference
• Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly election, 2014
• Tibetan Muslims

Footnotes

References

Bibliography

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Kashmiri people.

Blog

• Lost Kashmiri History