Jean Bolikango

Jean Bolikango
Jean Bolikango in 1960
Deputy Prime Minister of Congo-Léopoldville
In office
5 September 1960 – 14 September 1960
President Joseph Kasa-Vubu
Prime Minister Joseph Iléo
Preceded by Antoine Gizenga
In office
13 February 1962 – 12 July 1962
President Joseph Kasa-Vubu
Prime Minister Cyrille Adoula
Minister of Information of Congo-Léopoldville
In office
5 September 1960 – 14 September 1960
Preceded by Anicet Kashamura
Succeeded by Joseph Iléo
Minister of Defence of Congo-Léopoldville
In office
5 September 1960 – 14 September 1960
Preceded by Patrice Lumumba
Minister of Public Works of Congo-Léopoldville
In office
November 1965 – 16 April 1966
President Joseph-Désiré Mobutu
Personal details
Born (1909-02-04)February 4, 1909
Léopoldville, Belgian Congo
Died February 17, 1982(1982-02-17) (aged 73)
Liège, Belgium
Political party Parti de l'Unité Congolaise (?–1959)
Front de l'Unite Bangala (1959–1960)
Parti de l'Unité Nationale (1960–1965)
Mouvement Populaire de la Révolution (1968–1982)
Spouse(s) Claire Bolikango

Jean Bolikango or Bolikango Akpolokaka Gbukulu Nzete Nzube (4 February 1909 – 17 February 1982) was a prominent Congolese educator, writer, social figure, and politician. He served twice as deputy prime minister of the Democratic Republic of the Congo.

Bolikango began his career in the Belgian Congo as a teacher in a Catholic school, and became a prominent member of Congolese society as the leader of a cultural association. He wrote an award-winning novel and journalist before turning to politics in the late 1950s. Though he was the only Congolese to hold an executive position in the colonial administration, he became an outspoken leader in the push for independence, making him one of the "fathers of independence" of the Congo. The Republic of the Congo became independent in 1960 and Bolikango attempted to organise a national political base that would support his bid for a prestigious office in the new government. Being older than most of his contemporaries and commanding a significant amount of respect (especially among the Bangala people), he was seen as the Congo's "elder statesman". Regardless, his attempts to secure a position in the government failed and he became a leading member of the opposition in Parliament.

As the country became embroiled in a domestic crisis, the first government was dislodged and successively replaced by several new authorities. Bolikango served as deputy prime minister in one of the new governments before a partial state of stability was reestablished in 1961. He acted as a mediator between the various factions in the Congo and briefly served once again as deputy prime minister before returning to the parliamentary opposition. After Joseph-Désiré Mobutu took power in 1965, Bolikango became a member of the Mouvement Populaire de la Révolution. He retired from the government in 1980 and died two years later.

Early life

Jean Bolikango was born in Léopoldville, Belgian Congo on 4 February 1909 to a family from the Équateur Province. He received his education in Catholic schools run by Scheut Missionaries.[1] In 1917 he enrolled in St. Joseph's Institute of the St. Anne's Catholic mission.[2] He became a licensed primary school teacher in 1926.[1] Bolikango taught at St. Joseph's Institute until 1958, instructing a total of 1,300 students,[3] including future prime minister, Joseph Iléo, future prime minister Cyrille Adoula, future minister of finance Arthur Pinzi, and future minister of social affairs Jacques Massa.[4] In 1946 he became the president of the Association des Anciens élèves des pères de Scheut (ADAPÉS, Association of Former Students of the Fathers of Scheut), a position he held until his death.[3] He authored a novel in Lingala entitled Modjene Mobe, which won a prize from the 1949 Conference on African Studies at the International Fair in Ghent.[5][6]

Bolikango worked closely with missionary Raphaël de la Kethulle de Ryhove to establish the Union des Interets Sociaux Congolais (UNISCO), a cultural society for leaders of elite Congolese associations.[1] The organisation was viewed favorably by the colonial administration for its attachment to Belgian social ideals, though it would later become a forum for revolutionary politics.[7] He also founded and, for a time, led the Liboka Lya Bangala, the first Bangala ethnic association, based in Léopoldville.[1][8] By the late 1950s, Bolikango would be considered one of the most prominent évolués in Léopoldville.[9] He soon befriended Joseph Kasa-Vubu and sponsored his election as secretary-general of ADAPÉS in order to bring him into UNISCO, thereby furthering the latter's political standing.[10]

Bolikango first went abroad when he attended Kethulle de Ryhove's funeral in Belgium in 1956.[1] That year he hosted and contributed to the drafting of the first Congolese political manifesto, Conscience Africaine, in his own home. Most of the other authors were former students of his.[11] In 1958 he went to Brussels to represent Catholic education at the Expo 58 event, holding responsibility over public relations at the Missions Pavilion. In August 1959 he was appointed the first assistant commissioner-general for information in the Belgian Congo and Ruanda-Urundi,[4][3] making him the only Congolese to ever hold an executive position in the Belgian colonial administration.[12] The following year Bolikango served as an assistant professor of Bantu language speech therapy at the University of Ghent.[3] He regularly wrote for the Catholic newspaper La Croix du Congo. In 1960 Bolikango started his own newspaper, La Nation Congalaise.[1]

Political career

Léopold Sédar Senghor had a significant influence on Bolikango's political beliefs

Bolikango was older than most of his political contemporaries[11] and was regarded as the Congo's "elder statesman".[13] He was also labeled conservative and "pro-Belgian".[14] He considered the Sengalese poet and politician Léopold Sédar Senghor to be a principle influence on his beliefs. He also admired Félix Houphouët-Boigny of Côte d'Ivoire for his "wisdom and calmness".[15] Like other members of the original Congolese establishment, Bolikango sought a gradual decolonization process during which the Belgian authorities were to be amicably negotiated with.[16] He believed the Congo should be a united in a broad fashion.[lower-alpha 1]

In 1957 he unsuccessfully entered Léopoldville's first municipal elections.[19] As the former leader of the Liboka Lya Bangala, Bolikango decided to organise the Interfédérale, a federation between various regional and ethnic groups of the northern Congo to be the basis of his new Parti de l'Unité Congolaise. Almost immediately after its creation the party collapsed due to ethnic differences,[8] while in the autumn of 1959 the Interfédérale became a part of the Parti National du Progrès (PNP).[20] He didn't follow, instead founding the Front de l'Unite Bangala (FUB), a political party representing the Bangala people of the northeastern Congo.[8] Among them he was a popular figure; Bangala nicknames for him included "the Sage" and even "Moses".[21] Since the Bangala were only a cohesive political faction in the capital, Bolikango began to look elsewhere for support.[8]

From January 20 to February 20 1960 Bolikango attended the Belgo-Congolese Round Table Conference in Brussels to discuss the Congo's future under Belgian rule, serving as the leading delegate for the Association des Ressortisants du Haut-Congo (ASSORECO).[22] During the conference he made an unexpectedly sharp denunciation of Belgian propaganda.[23] On 27 January he publicly revealed that independence would be granted to the Congolese on 30 June.[24]

Attempts at consolidation

In order to consolidate his political power in the Équateur Province, Bolikango called a congress to Lisala, lasting from 24 March to 3 April. Like his own party, the other political groups of the Équateur lacked the necessary support to make significant gains in the upcoming independent elections. Bolikango was eager to win a prominent government office and aimed to form a broad coalition with the Ngombe, Mongo, and Ngwaka peoples and other minorities in the province to achieve it. This could be best accomplished, in his view, with an alliance of his own party with the Union des Mongo (UNIMO), FEDUNEC, UNILAC, ASSORECO, and local chiefs who had not already put their support behind the PNP.[25]

In his opening address at the congress, Bolikango said that while "parties based on ethnic foundations" made the first step toward a unified Congo, the "national interest" of the country rested upon a "unity of will". He enumerated that this "does not mean that each ethnic group must abandon its own characteristics, but that through these differences one must endeavour to form a harmonious ensemble." The UNIMO leadership was skeptical of Bolikango's unified outlook for the Congo and remained independent. However, he did secure the support of the Ngombe, some of the Ngwaka and Bangala, and chiefs from the Lisala, Bongandanga, and Bumba regions.[8] The FUB made an alliance with ASSORECO and FEDUNEC, transforming into the Parti de l'Unité Nationale (PUNA).[25] In spite of its attempts to garner more national appeal, the new party retained its regional bias and failed to amass substantial outside support and cost Bolikango much of his backing in Léopoldville.[1][8] Still, this reformed political base allowed him to win a position as a deputy from the Mongala province in the May 1960 national election by 15,000 votes.[3] He attempted to win the office of provincial president, but was defeated.[26] In the campaign the opposing faction of Laurent Eketebi allied itself with the Budja tribal minority in the provincial assembly, destroying the concept of a unified Bangala tribe that Bolikango had used to elevate his social and political standing.[27] Meanwhile, the radical Mouvement National Congolais (MNC) sharply criticised his connections with the Belgians, undermining his reputation in both Équateur and the capital.[4]

"Bolikango was one of those Congolese politicians who believed that honesty and keeping one's word were the most important characteristics of political men. He could not conceive of anyone's using deceit, still less violence or brutality, as a tactic for success."

Thomas Kanza's opinion on Bolikango's approach towards politics during his bid for the presidency[28]

Bolikango ran as PUNA's nominee[29] to be the first President of the Republic of the Congo in May, facing his former protégé, Joseph Kasa-Vubu of the Alliance des Bakongo (ABAKO). Patrice Lumumba of the MNC, aspiring to become prime minister, originally wrote a pledge of support to Bolikango, in exchange for his backing in the general government election. Once Lumumba realized that the Belgians would only allow him to be prime minister if Kasa-Vubu held office, he switched allegiances, denouncing Bolikango as a "pawn of Belgium and a protégé of the Catholics," and endorsing Kasa-Vubu. Bolikango lost the parliamentary vote 159 to 43.[30] Lumumba's actions infuriated Bolikango.[31] According to his friend, Thomas Kanza, the loss was "the most bitter failure in his entire career."[32] He had previously made a bid to be president of the Chamber of Deputies, but lost the Chamber vote to the MNC candidate, Joseph Kasongo, 74 to 58.[20] Lastly, he tried to secure the position of defence minister, but was ultimately excluded from Lumumba's cabinet.[11] Bolikango then helped organise an anti-MNC coalition in Parliament.[33]

Congo Crisis

During the Congo Crisis that followed Congolese independence, Bolikango accused Prime Minister Lumumba of ignoring opposition groups and deliberately stifling dissent.[34] In return, the prime minister accused Bolikango of plotting the secession of Équateur Province.[17] On 1 September, Bolikango was arrested in Gemena on Lumumba's orders, ostensibly for planning his assassination, and brought to the capital, leading to demonstrations by Bolikango's supporters throughout the city on the following day.[35][36] Sympathetic soldiers eventually released him.[36]

Lumumba soon thereafter was dismissed from office by President Kasa-Vubu and replaced with Joseph Iléo. During Iléo's short terms, Bolikango served as minister of information, minister of defence,[37] and deputy prime minister.[38] He felt threatened by the sudden collapse of political unity in the Congo and supported the government's efforts at re-centralization.[39] Throughout June 1961 Bolikango worked alongside Cyrille Adoula and Marcel Lihau to negotiate a settlement between the central government and a rival Free Republic of the Congo in the eastern portion of the country.[40] This culminated in a conference in July that resulted in the election of Adoula as prime minister. Bolikango was certain that he would also be elected as president but Kasa-Vubu retained the office.[41] After the conference Bolikango helped to mediate negotiations between Adoula and secessionist figure Moïse Tshombe, leader of the breakaway State of Katanga.[3] Bolikango claimed that he alone could resolve the situation by sitting “Bantu fashion with legs out stretched” around a table with Tshombe.[11] On 13 February 1962 he was appointed deputy prime minister.[42] On 12 July Adoula downsized his government and dismissed Bolikango from his post.[14] In 1963 following the defeat of Katanga, Bolikango managed to organise a parliamentary opposition coalition to Adoula's government, consisting of ABAKO, leftist followers of Lumumba (by then killed) and Antoine Gizenga, and Tshombe's Confédération des associations tribales du Katanga (CONAKAT).[11] He also foiled an attempt by one of Adoula's ministers to establish a pro-government party in Équateur.[43]

Mobutu regime

Following Joseph-Désiré Mobutu's seizure of power in 1965, Bolikango became the minister of public works.[29] On 16 April 1966 Mobutu dismissed Bolikango from his post, ostensibly for "lack of discipline and refusing to follow received orders."[44] This firing was the first of many Mobutu would use to pressure established Congolese politicians, though Bolikango was not left disadvantaged for long. In 1968 he was appointed to the political bureau of the Mouvement Populaire de la Révolution (MPR), serving there until 1970.[45] In his later life he made frequent trips to Lisala, where he remained a popular figure. Rumors surfaced in the capital that Bolikango was planning to use his regional political esteem for subversive purposes, so the Mobutu regime closely monitored his activities.[46] Bolikango joined the MPR's central committee in 1980 and retired from the government. He died from an illness on 17 February 1982 in Liège, Belgium.[2][29][lower-alpha 2]

Legacy

Bolikango is remembered in the Congo as one of the "fathers of independence".[24][47] The Fondation Jean Bolikango (Jean Bolikango Foundation) was created by Bolikango's grandson in his memory. The foundation focuses on supporting social progress and education.[3] In 2005 President Joseph Kabila posthumously awarded Bolikango a medal for dedication to civil service.[48] On 22 February 2007 a ceremony was held in the Équateur Province to commemorate the 25th anniversary of Bolikango's death.[3]

Notes

  1. ↑ Sources disagree over how supportive Bolikango was of federalism. According to the Daily Sun, he thought the Congo should be a united but decentralized country, with a significant amount of authority delegated to the provinces.[17] Conversely, Segal writes that Bolikango was "willing to concede a measure of provincial autonomy" but was "opposed to federation".[18]
  2. ↑ According to Digital Congo, Bolikango died on 22 February.[3]

Citations

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 LaFontaine 1986, p. 218
  2. 1 2 Mulumba & Makombo 1986, p. 65
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 "In mémoriam: Jean Bolikango: 25 ans déjà". Digital Congo (in French). Kinshasa: Multimedia Congo s.p.r.l. 22 February 2007. Retrieved 27 November 2016.
  4. 1 2 3 LaFontaine 1986, p. 219
  5. ↑ FASD 1962, p. 200
  6. ↑ Botombele 1976, p. 27
  7. ↑ LaFontaine 1986, p. 155
  8. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Lemarchand 1964, p. 281
  9. ↑ Monaville 2013, p. 184
  10. ↑ LaFontaine 1986, p. 217
  11. 1 2 3 4 5 The Atlantic 1963
  12. ↑ AGPS 1961, p. 10
  13. ↑ Africa Report 1960, p. xxvii
  14. 1 2 Yearbook 1963, p. 178
  15. ↑ Legum 1961, p. 102
  16. ↑ Nzongola-Ntalaja 2014, p. 62
  17. 1 2 Daily Sun 1960, p. 2
  18. ↑ Segal 1971, p. 87
  19. ↑ Young 2015, p. 120
  20. 1 2 FASD 1962, p. 344
  21. ↑ Legum 1961, p. 101
  22. ↑ Belgium 1960, p. 62
  23. ↑ Legum 1961, pp. 101–102
  24. 1 2 "30 juin 2016: la RDC célèbre son 56e anniversaire d’indépendance sur fond d’impasse politique" (in French). Radio Okapi. 30 June 2016. Retrieved 20 February 2017.
  25. 1 2 Lemarchand 1964, p. 280
  26. ↑ Willame 1972, p. 55
  27. ↑ Willame 1972, p. 56
  28. ↑ Kanza 1994, p. 124
  29. 1 2 3 Kisangani 2016, p. 104
  30. ↑ Frindethie 2016, p. 220
  31. ↑ Kanza 1994, p. 123
  32. ↑ Kanza 1994, p. 130
  33. ↑ Hoskyns 1965, p. 73
  34. ↑ Bacquelaine, Willems & Coenen 2001, p. 76
  35. ↑ Bacquelaine, Willems & Coenen 2001, p. 77
  36. 1 2 Goldsmith 1960, p. 1
  37. ↑ Desert Sun 1961
  38. ↑ "FOREIGN RELATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES, 1964–1968, VOLUME XXIII, CONGO, 1960–1968: Persons and Pseudonyms". Office of the Historian. United States Department of State. Retrieved 30 November 2016. Bolikango, Jean, leader of Parti de l’Unité National (PUNA); Vice Premier in the lléo Ministry; Third Vice-Premier in the Adoula Ministry
  39. ↑ Willame 1972, pp. 37, 39
  40. ↑ Africa 1980, p. 421
  41. ↑ O'Brien 1961, p. 189
  42. ↑ Nnoli 2000, p. 77
  43. ↑ Kyle 1964
  44. ↑ Associated Press 1966
  45. ↑ Young & Turner 2013, p. 56
  46. ↑ Schatzberg 1991, p. 32
  47. ↑ "Congo Celebrates 50th Anniversary of Independence". Congo Planet. Congo News Agency. 30 June 2010. Retrieved 20 February 2010.
  48. ↑ "Le Chef de l’Etat décerne ŕ titre posthume une médaille du mérite civique ŕ Jean Bolikango". Digital Congo (in French). Kinshasa. 7 March 2005. Retrieved 27 March 2017.

References

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