Animals in Islam

In Islam, God has a relationship with animals: He cares for them[1] and they praise Him, even if this praise is not expressed in human language.[2][3] Baiting animals for entertainment or gambling is prohibited.[4][5]

The Quran explicitly allows the eating of the meat of certain ḥalāl (Arabic: حَـلَال‎‎, lawful) animals.[3][6] Although some Sufis have practised vegetarianism, there has been no serious discourse on the possibility of vegetarian interpretations.[3] Certain animals can be eaten under the condition that they are slaughtered in a specified way. [7] Animals cannot be stunned to death under the Sharia, but can be stunned to make them unconscious and unable to feel the pain of ritual slaughter carried out post-stunning; this, according to the BBC, includes most of the halal meat in the United Kingdom.[8] Prohibitions include swine, carrion,[9] and animals involved in dhabīḥah (Arabic: ذَبِـيـحَـة‎‎, ritual slaughter) in the name of someone other than God.[7] The Quran also states "eat of that over which the name of Allah, hath been mentioned".[10]

Animals in pre-Islamic Arabia

In pre-Islamic Arabia, Arab Bedouin, like other people, attributed the qualities and the faults of humans to animals. Generosity, for example, was attributed to the cock; perfidy to the lizard; stupidity to the bustard; and boldness to the lion.[11]

Based on the facts that the names of certain tribes bear the names of animals, survivals of animal cults, prohibitions of certain foods and other indications, W. R. Smith argued for the practice of totemism by certain tribes of Arabia. Others have argued that these evidences may only imply practice of a form of animalism. In support of this, for example, it was believed that upon one's death, the soul departs from the body in the form of a bird (usually a sort of owl); the soul-as-bird then flies about the tomb for some time, occasionally crying out (for vengeance).

Quran

Although over two hundred verses in the Qur’an deal with animals and six surahs (chapters) of the Qur’an are named after animals, animal life is not a predominant theme in the Qur’an;[1] haywan, the Arabic word meaning "animal" (plural haywanat) makes one appearance.[11][1] On the other hand, the term dābba, usually taken to mean "beast of burden", occurs a number of times in the Qur’an, while remaining rare in medieval Arabic works on zoology. By implication, animals in the Qur’an and early Muslim thought are usually seen solely in terms of their relation to human beings, producing a tendency toward anthropocentrism.[1]

The Qur'an teaches that God created animals from water.[1] God cares for all his creatures and provides for them.[1] All creation praises God, even if this praise is not expressed in human language.[2][3] God has prescribed laws for each species (laws of nature). Since animals follow the laws God has ordained for them, they are to be regarded as "Muslim", just as a human who obeys the laws prescribed for humans (Islamic law) is a Muslim.[12] Just like humans, animals form "communities". In verse 6:38, the Qur’an applies the term ummah, generally used to mean "a human religious community", for genera of animals. The Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an states that this verse has been "far reaching in its moral and ecological implications."[13]

There is not an animal (that lives) on the earth, nor a being that flies on its wings, but (forms part of) communities like you. Nothing have we omitted from the Book, and they (all) shall be gathered to their Lord in the end.
— Quran 6:38

The Qur'an often calls upon Muslims and non-Muslim to examine animals (such as the flight of birds, or the camel) as a marvel of creation, and sign of God's omnipotence and wisdom.[1]

The Qur'an says that animals benefit humans in many ways, and that they are aesthetically pleasing to look at. This is used a proof of God's benevolence towards humans.[1] Animals that are slaughtered in accordance with sharia may be consumed..[1] According to many verses of the Qur’an,[14] the consumption of pork is sinful,[9] unless there is no alternative other than starving to death (in times, for example, of war or famine).[15]

Sunnah

Sunnah refers to the traditional biographies of Muhammad wherein examples of sayings attributed to him and his conduct have been recorded. Sunni and Shi'a hadith (anecdotes about Muhammad) differ vastly, with Shi'a hadith generally containing more anthropomorphism and praise of animals.

Treatment of animals

Animals must not be mutilated while they are alive.[16]

Muhammad is also reported (by Ibn Omar and Abdallah bin Al-As) to have said: "There is no man who kills [even] a sparrow or anything smaller, without its deserving it, but God will question him about it [on the judgment day]" and "Whoever is kind to the creatures of God is kind to himself."[3][11]

According to another hadith, Muhammad issued advice to kill animals that were fawāsiq (Arabic: فَـوَاسِـق‎‎ "Harmful ones"), such as the rat and the scorpion, within the holy area ḥaram (Arabic: حَـرَم‎‎, holy area) of Mecca. Killing other non-domesticated animals in this area, such as zebras and birds, is forbidden.[17]

Conversation with the animals

In one account, a camel is said to have come to Muhammad to complain that despite its service to its owner, it was due to be killed. Muhammad summoned the owner and ordered the man to spare the camel.[18] There is also an account in the Qur’an's sura an-Naml of Sulaymaan (Solomon) talking to ants.[19] and birds.[20]

Hunting and slaughter

Muslims are required to sharpen the blade when slaughtering animals to ensure that no pain is felt .[21] Muhammad is reported to have said: "For [charity shown to] each creature which has a wet heart [i.e. is alive], there is a reward."[3]

Views regarding particular animals

Bats

In Shi'ite ahadith, bats are praised as a miracle of nature.[17]

Birds

Birds are commonly revered in Islamic literature, especially in the Sufi tradition, where they are a metaphor for the soul's divine journey to God (e.g. in The Conference of the Birds). In the Nahj al-Balagha, the Shi'a book of the sayings of Ali, an entire sermon is dedicated to praising peacocks.[22]

Camels

Muhammad, the messenger of Islam, is also reported as having reprimanded some men who were sitting idly on their camels in a marketplace, saying "either ride them or leave them alone".[3][11] Apart from that, the camel has significance in Islam.[23][24]

Canidae

The dhi’b (Arabic: ذِئـب‎‎, wolf) may symbolize ferocity.[34][35][36] As for the kalb (Arabic: كَـلـب‎‎, dog), there are different views regarding it.[37][38]

The historian William Montgomery Watt states that Muhammad's kindness to animals was remarkable; he cites an instance of Muhammad, while traveling with his army to Mecca in 630 CE, posting sentries to ensure that a female dog and her newborn puppies were not disturbed.[37] On the other hand, in a tradition found in the Sunni hadith book al-Muwatta’, Muhammad is reported as saying that the company of dogs voids a portion of a Muslim's good deeds.[38] However, in "two separate narrations by Abu Hurayrah, the Prophet told his companions of the virtue of saving the life of a dog by giving it water and quenching its thirst. One story referred to a man who was blessed by Allah for giving water to a thirsty dog, the other was a prostitute who filled her shoe with water and gave it to a dog, who had its tongue lolling out from thirst. For this deed she was granted the ultimate reward, the eternal Paradise under which rivers flow, to live therein forever."[39]

According to a Sunni narration classified as authentic by Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj, black dogs are a manifestation of evil in animal form;[40] however, according to Khaled Abou El Fadl, the majority of scholars regard this to be "pre-Islamic Arab mythology" and "a tradition to be falsely attributed to the Prophet".[41]

Another tradition attributed to Muhammad commands Muslims not to trade or deal in dogs.[42]

Many Muslim jurists consider dogs to be ritually unclean (najis).[43] In Malaysia, they have gone as far as banning the use of the term hot dog to refer to the food of the same name.[44] However, "jurists from the Sunni Maliki School disagree with the idea that dogs are unclean."[45] Individual faṫāwā (Arabic: فَـتَـاوَى‎‎, "rulings") have indicated that dogs be treated kindly or otherwise released[46] and earlier Islamic literature often portrayed dogs as symbols of highly esteemed virtues such as self-sacrifice and loyalty, which, in the hands of despotic and unjust rulers, become oppressive instruments.[43]

Abou El Fadl "found it hard to believe that the same God who created such companionable creatures would have his prophet declare them 'unclean'", stating that animosity towards dogs "reflected views far more consistent with pre-Islamic Arab customs and attitudes".[47] Furthermore, "he found that a hadith from one of the most trustworthy sources tells how the Prophet himself had prayed in the presence of his playfully cavorting dogs."[47]

Qur’ān

Surat Yusuf of the Quran mentions that a reason why Ya‘qub was reluctant to let his son Yusuf to play in the open, even in the presence of his brothers, was that a wolf could eat him.[34][35]

The Quran contains three mentions of dogs:

Hunting dogs and the dog of the Companions of al-Kahf (Arabic: الـكـهـف‎‎, the Cave) are described in a positive light, and the companionship of these dogs is mentioned with approval. The Qurʼan, thus, contains not even a hint of the condemnation of dogs found in certain ḥadīths.[51]

Aḥādīth

There is a hadith in Muwatta’ Imam Malik about Muslim Pilgrims having to beware of the wolf, besides other animals.[36]

The angel Gabriel came to Muhammad and said to him: You promised me and I waited for you, but you did not come, whereupon he said: It was the dog in your house which prevented me (to come), for we (angels) do not enter a house in which there is a dog or a picture.

Ibn Mughaffal reported: "The Messenger of Allah (may peace be upon him) ordered the killing of rabid dogs, and then said: What about them, i. e. about other dogs? and then granted concession (to keep) the dog for hunting and the dog for (the security) of the herd, and said: When the dog licks the utensil, wash it seven times, and rub it with earth the eighth time." (From Muslim Book #002, Hadith #0551)

Ibn 'Umar reported "Allah's Messenger (may peace be upon him) giving command for killing dogs..." (From Muslim Book #010, Hadith #3809)

Some Muslim commentators (e.g. Bassam Zawadi) suggest however that these killings were to be limited to "rabid dogs".[52]

Bukhari 4:538:

A prostitute was forgiven by Allah, because, passing by a panting dog near a well and seeing that the dog was about to die of thirst, she took off her shoe, and tying it with her head-cover she drew out some water for it. So, Allah forgave her because of that.

Fiqh

The majority of Muslim jurists consider dogs to be ritually unclean, though jurists from the Sunni Maliki school disagree.[43] However, outside their ritual uncleanness, Islamic fatāwā, or rulings, enjoin that dogs be treated kindly or else be freed.[53] Muslims generally cast dogs in a negative light because of their ritual impurity. The story of the Seven Sleepers of Ephesus in the Qur’an (and also the role of the dog in early Christianity) is one of the striking exceptions.[54] Though dogs are not recommended as pets, they are allowed to be kept, especially if used for work and protection, such as guarding the house or farm, or when used for hunting purposes.

Despite a report suggesting that sniffer dogs trained to detect explosives should no longer come into contact with Muslim passengers, the British Transport Police insisted it would still use them with any passengers, though handlers would remain aware of "cultural sensitivities."[55] A proposal was made from the Association of Chief Police Officers of Britain that sniffer dogs used in searching mosques and Muslim homes should be fitted with leather bootees to cover their paws and thereby avoid causing offence.[56] Muslim convicts in British prisons are entitled to fresh clothes and linen if they feel these may have been in contact with canine saliva, while copies of the Quran and other religious items are to be checked by hand.[57]

Felidae

Cats have a special place in Islamic culture. Muhammad is said to have loved his cat Mu‘izzah (Arabic: مُـعِـزَّة‎‎)[58] to the extent that "he would do without his cloak rather than disturb one that was sleeping on it."[32]

Big cats, like the asad (Arabic: أَسَـد‎‎, lion), namir (Arabic: نَـمِـر‎‎, leopard), and fahd (Arabic: فَـهـد‎‎, cheetah), can symbolize ferocity, similar to the wolf.[36] Verses 50 and 51 of Surat al-Muddaththir in the Quran talk about ḥumur (Arabic: حُـمُـر‎‎, 'asses' or 'donkeys') fleeing from a qaswarah (Arabic: قَـسـوَرَة‎‎, 'lion'), in its criticism of people who were averse to Muhammad's teachings, such as donating wealth to the less wealthy.[59][60] Apart from ferocity, the lion has an important position in Islam and Arab culture. Men noted for their bravery, like Ali,[61] Hamzah ibn Abdul-Muttalib[62] and Omar Mukhtar,[63] were given titles like "Asad Allāh" (Arabic: أَسَـد الله‎‎, "Lion of God") and "Asad aṣ-Ṣaḥrā’" (Arabic: أَسَـد الـصَّـحْـرَاء‎‎, "Lion of the Desert").

Scorpions

Scorpions are considered to represent viciousness and evil.[17]

Suidae

Pork is ḥarām (Arabic: حَـرَام‎‎, forbidden) to eat, because its essence is considered impure, this is based on the verse of the Qur'an where it is described as being rijs (Arabic: رِجـس‎‎, impure) (Quran 6:145).

Muslim cultures

Usually, in Muslim majority cultures, animals have names (one animal may be given several names), which are often interchangeable with names of people. Muslim names or titles like asad and ghadanfar (Arabic for lion), shir and arslan (Persian and Turkish for lion, respectively) are common in the Muslim world. Prominent Muslims with animal names include: Hamzah, Abd al-Rahman ibn Sakhr Al-Azdi ( called "Abu Hurairah", the Father of the kitten), Abdul-Qadir Gilani (called al-baz al-ashhab, the white falcon) and Lal Shahbaz Qalander of Sehwan (called "red falcon").[64]

Islamic literature contains many stories of animals. Arabic and Persian literature boast a large number of animal fables. The most famous, Kalilah wa-Dimnah or Panchatantra, translated into Arabic by Abd-Allāh Ibn al-Muqaffaʿ in the 8th century, was also known in Europe. In the 12th century Shihab al-Din al-Suhrawadi wrote many short stories of animals. At about the same time, in north-eastern Iran, Attar Neyshapuri (Farid al-Din Attar) composed the epic poem Mantiq al-Tayr (meaning The Conference of the Birds).[64]

Controversy

Ritual slaughter

The ritual methods of slaughter practiced in Islam (dhabihah) and Judaism (shechita) have been decried by some UK animal welfare organisations as inhumane and causing "severe suffering".[65][66] According to Judy MacArthur Clark, Chairperson of the Farm Animal Welfare Council, cattle require up to two minutes to bleed to death when halal or kosher means of slaughter are used: "This is a major incision into the animal and to say that it doesn't suffer is quite ridiculous." In response, Majid Katme of the Muslim Council of Britain stated that "[i]t's a sudden and quick haemorrhage. A quick loss of blood pressure and the brain is instantaneously starved of blood and there is no time to start feeling any pain."[66]

In permitting dhabiha, the German Constitutional Court cited[67] the 1978 study led by Professor Wilhelm Schulze at the University of Veterinary Medicine Hanover which concluded that "[t]he slaughter in the form of ritual cut is, if carried out properly, painless in sheep and calves according to the EEG recordings and the missing defensive actions."[68] Muslims and Jews have also argued that traditional British methods of slaughter have meant that "animals are sometimes rendered physically immobile, although with full consciousness and sensation. The application of a sharp knife in shechita and dhabh, by contrast, ensures that no pain is felt: the wound inflicted is clean, and the loss of blood causes the animal to lose consciousness within seconds."[69]

See also

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 "Animal life" in the Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an.
  2. 1 2 See Quran 17:44
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 "Islam, Animals, and Vegetarianism" in the Encyclopedia of Religion and Nature (Bron Taylor (chief ed.), Continuum International Publishing Group Ltd, 2008).
  4. ↑ Al-Adab al-Mufrad, Book 1, Hadith 1232
  5. ↑ Susan J. Armstrong; Richard G. Botzler. The Animal Ethics Reader. Routledge (UK) Press. pp. 235–237. ISBN 0415275881.
  6. ↑ See Quran 5:1
  7. 1 2 Javed Ahmad Ghamidi (2001): The Dietary Laws Archived May 2, 2007, at the Wayback Machine.
  8. ↑ http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-27324224
  9. 1 2 John Esposito (2002b), p.111
  10. ↑ See Quran 6:118
  11. 1 2 3 4 "Hayawān" ("Haywan") in the Encyclopaedia of Islam (vol. 3, p. 308).
  12. ↑ "Islam" in the Encyclopedia of Science and Religion (op. cit.)
  13. ↑ "Community and Society and Qur'an" in the Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an (vol. 1, p. 371)
  14. ↑ See Quran 2:173 and Quran 6:145)
  15. ↑ "He hath only forbidden you dead meat, and blood, and the flesh of swine, and that on which any other name hath been invoked besides that of God. But if one is forced by necessity, without wilful disobedience, nor transgressing due limits, then is he guiltless. For God is Oft-forgiving, Most Merciful."[Quran 2:173]
  16. ↑ Susan J. Armstrong, Richard G. Botzler, The Animal Ethics Reader, p.237, Routledge (UK) Press
  17. 1 2 3 Jürgen Wasim Frembgen (Völkerkundemuseum), "The Scorpion in Muslim Folklore", Asian Folklore Studies, Volume 63 (2004), p. 95-123.
  18. ↑ Foltz (2006), pg.22-23
  19. ↑ See Quran 27:18
  20. ↑ See Quran 27:20
  21. ↑ P. Aarne Vesilind, Alastair S. Gunn, Engineering, Ethics, and the Environment, Cambridge University Press, p. 301.
  22. ↑ Nahjul Balagha by ʻAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib, Muḥammad ibn al-Ḥusayn Sharīf al-Raḍī, Ali Ibn Abu Talib, Mohammad Askari Jafery, ʻAlam al-Hudá ʻAlī ibn al-Ḥusayn Sharīf al-Murtaḍá
  23. 1 2 Al Mubarakpuri, Safi ur Rahman (2002). Ar-Raheeq Al-Makhtum (The Sealed Nectar): Biography of the Noble Prophet. Darussalam. pp. 127–147. ISBN 9960-899-55-1. Retrieved 2014-10-06.
  24. 1 2 Quran 15:80–84
  25. ↑ Quran 7:73–79
  26. ↑ Quran 11:61–69
  27. ↑ Quran 26:141–158
  28. ↑ Quran 54:23–31
  29. ↑ Quran 89:6–13
  30. ↑ Quran 91:11–15
  31. ↑ "Al-Hijr Archaeological Site (Madâin Sâlih)". UNESCO. Retrieved 2014-04-07.
  32. 1 2 Minou Reeves, Muhammad in Europe, New York University (NYU) Press, p.52
  33. ↑ "‘Al-Qaswa’, what's behind the name?". Qaswa.net. Retrieved 2017-06-03.
  34. 1 2 al-Tabari, Muhammad ibn Jarir (Translated by William Brinner) (1987). The History of al-Tabari Vol. 2: Prophets and Patriarchs. SUNY. p. 150.
  35. 1 2 Quran 12:4–17
  36. 1 2 3 Muwatta’ Imam Malik, Book 20 (Hajj), Hadith 794
  37. 1 2 William Montgomery Watt, Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman, Oxford University Press, 1961,
  38. 1 2 Malik ibn Anas, al-Muwatta’ (Egypt: al-Babi al-Halabi, n.d.), 2: 969.
  39. ↑ "Islam teaches the love of animals". IslamWeb. 12 January 2004. Retrieved 26 May 2014.
  40. ↑ Sahih Muslim, Book 10, Hadith 3813 (The Book of Transactions [Kitab Al-Buyu`]). Abu Zubair heard Jabir b. 'Abdullah (Allah be pleased with him) saying: Allah's Messenger (may peace be upon him) ordered us to kill dogs, and we carried out this order so much so that we also kill the dog coming with a woman from the desert. Then Allah's Apostle (may peace be upon him) forbade their killing. He (the Holy Prophet further) said: It is your duty the jet-black (dog) having two spots (on the eyes), for it is a devil.
  41. ↑ Khaled Abou El Fadl (2004). "Dogs in the Islamic Tradition and Nature". Encyclopedia of Religion and Nature. New York: Scholar of the House. Retrieved 26 May 2014.
  42. ↑ Ahmad Ibn Shu‘ayb al-Nisa’i, Sunan al-Nisa’i (Beirut: Dar al-Kitab al-‘Arabi, n.d.), 7: 309 (The commentaries by al-Suyuti and al-Sanadi are in the margins). Ibn Hajar al-‘Asqalani, Fath al-Bari, 4:426. All reported in El Fadl.
  43. 1 2 3 Khaled Abou El Fadl, "Dogs in the Islamic Tradition and Nature" in the Encyclopedia of Religion and Nature, New York: Continuum International.
  44. ↑ BBC: "Hot dogs 'must be renamed' in Malaysia, says religious government body" October 19, 2016
  45. ↑ Coren, Stanley (23 March 2010). "Dogs and Islam: The Devil and the Seeing-Eye Dog". Psychology Today. Psychology Today. Retrieved 26 May 2014.
  46. ↑ ['Aalim Network QR] Dogs / Pets Archived April 11, 2008, at the Wayback Machine.
  47. 1 2 Banderker, Ayoub M. (15 April 2002). "Dogs in Islam". Newsweek. Islamic Concern. Retrieved 26 May 2014.
  48. ↑ Schimmel, Annemarie (1994). Deciphering the Signs of God: A Phenomenological Approach to Islam. Albany: SUNY Press. p. 48. ISBN 0791419819. Retrieved February 16, 2014. The seven pious youths 'and the eighth with them was their dog' (Sūra 18:22) have turned into protective spirits, whose names, and especially that of their dog Qiṭmīr, written on amulets, carry baraka with them.
  49. ↑ Bahjat, Ahmad (2002). "The Dog of the People of the Cave". Animals in the Glorious Qurʼan: Relating Their Own Stories. Cairo: Islamic Inc.; Dar al-Tawzīʻ wa-al-Nashr al-Islāmīyah. pp. 247–267. ISBN 9772654075. Retrieved February 16, 2014.
  50. ↑ Tlili, Sarra (2012). Animals in the Qurʼan. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 250. ISBN 9781107023703. Retrieved February 16, 2014. Al-Thaʻlabī cites an opinion according to which the dog of the Dwellers of the Cave[...] will dwell in heaven. Al-Thaʻlabī, al-Kashf wa-al-Bayān (Beirut: Dār Iḥyāʼ al-Turāth al-ʻArabī, 2002), 2:251.
  51. ↑ "Are dogs prohibited in the Quran?". Retrieved February 16, 2014.
  52. ↑ Answering Christianity Archived September 29, 2013, at the Wayback Machine.
  53. ↑ ['Aalim Network QR] Dogs / Pets Archived April 11, 2008, at the Wayback Machine.
  54. ↑ David Gordon White, Encyclopedia of Religion, Dog, p.2393
  55. ↑ http://www.express.co.uk/posts/view/50071
  56. ↑ Smith, Graham. "Police sniffer dogs to wear bootees during house searches to avoid offending Muslims". Daily Mail. London.
  57. ↑ http://www.express.co.uk/posts/view/65223
  58. ↑ Cats Archived April 3, 2007, at the Wayback Machine.
  59. ↑ Quran 74:41–51
  60. ↑ Khalaf-von Jaffa, N.A.B.A.T. (2006). "The Asiatic or Persian Lion (Panthera leo persica, Meyer 1826) in Palestine and the Arabian and Islamic Region". Wayback Machine. Archived from the original on 2007-11-12. Retrieved 2016-12-21.
  61. ↑ Nasr, Seyyed Hossein. "Ali". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Archived from the original on October 18, 2007. Retrieved 2007-10-12.
  62. ↑ Muhammad ibn Saad. Kitab al-Tabaqat al-Kabair vol. 3. Translated by Bewley, A. (2013). The Companions of Badr. London: Ta-Ha Publishers.
  63. ↑ as-Salab, Ali Muhammad (2011). Omar Al Mokhtar Lion of the Desert (The Biography of Shaikh Omar Al Mukhtar). Al-Firdous. p. 1. ISBN 978-1874263647.
  64. 1 2 Annemarie Schimmel. Islam and The Wonders of Creation: The Animal Kingdom. Al-Furqan Islamic Heritage Foundation, 2003. Pages 2-4
  65. ↑ Blackstock, Colin (May 15, 2003). "Halal killing may be banned". The Guardian. London. Retrieved May 5, 2010.
  66. 1 2 "Halal and Kosher slaughter 'must end'". BBC News. June 10, 2003. Retrieved May 5, 2010.
  67. ↑ Das Bundesverfassungsgericht
  68. ↑ Schulze W, Schultze-Petzold H, Hazem AS, Gross R. "Experiments for the objectification of pain and consciousness during conventional (captive bolt-stunning) and religiously mandated (“ritual cutting”) slaughter procedures for sheep and calves", Deutsche Tierärztliche Wochenschrift, 5;85(2) (February 1978), pp. 62-6. English translation
  69. ↑ Parsons, Gerald. The Growth of Religious Diversity: Britain from 1945. Routledge Press. p. 69.

Notes

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