Immunoglobulin M

Immunoglobulin M (IgM) is one of several forms of antibody that are produced by vertebrates. IgM is the largest antibody, and it is the first antibody to appear in the response to initial exposure to an antigen.[1][2] In the case of humans and other mammals that have been studied, the spleen, where plasmablasts responsible for antibody production reside, is the major site of specific IgM production.[3][4]

Introduction

Immunoglobulins, also known as antibodies, comprise a family of proteins that occur in five major forms, also termed classes or isotypes – IgM, IgD, IgG, IgE and IgA. Immunoglobulins are produced by vertebrate animals as part of the normal immune response to microbial, e.g., bacterial or viral, infection. Binding of the immunoglobulins to the microbes can mobilize other components of the immune system to destroy or otherwise inactivate the microbes and thereby provide protection against infectious disease. The molecular structures that bacteria and viruses present to the immune system and elicit immunoglobulin (antibody) production are collectively denoted as antigens.

Although all vertebrates that have been studied – from fish to human – produce IgM, there are significant differences in the IgM of different species. This article focuses on human and mouse IgM, which are both well studied and have very similar properties. For the most part IgM is produced by plasma cells in the spleen and lymph nodes and secreted into serum, where it is typically at a concentration of ~1.5 mg/ml. This article describes the structure of serum IgM, as opposed to other forms, such as the IgM membrane receptor.

Immunoglobulins are composed of two types of protein chain -- the heavy chain and the light chain. The heavy chains, which determine the immunoglobulin class, are of five different types, denoted by the Greek letters, µ, δ, γ, ε and α, corresponding to the classes, IgM, IgD, IgG, IgE, and IgA, respectively. Light chains are of two types, denoted λ and κ. Each chain is itself divided into two functional parts, the variable (V) domain and the constant (C) domain. The V domains of the light and heavy chain are juxtaposed to form a structure that binds antigen; different V domains bind different antigens, i.e., binding of antigen by immunoglobulin is “antigen-specific”. Inasmuch as the V domains can occur in a nearly unlimited variety of amino acid sequences, immunoglobulins collectively have the potential of binding to virtually any molecular structure. The immunoglobulin C domains interact with other physiological components, eg the complement system. Thus, the constant domain can mobilize the complement system to act on the antigen that is bound by the variable domain.

Discovery of IgM

The study of IgM began with the report in 1937 that horses hyperimmunized with pneumococcus polysaccharide produced antibody that was much larger than the typical rabbit γ-globulin [5], with a molecular weight of 990,000 daltons [6]. In accordance with its large size, the new antibody was originally referred to as γ-macroglobulin, and then in subsequent terminology as IgM -- M for “macro”. As noted above, the V domains of normal immunoglobulin are highly heterogeneous, reflecting their role in protecting against the great variety of infectious microbes, and this heterogeneity impeded detailed structural analysis of IgM. Two sources of homogeneous IgM were subsequently discovered. First, the high molecular weight protein produced by some myeloma patients was recognized to be tumor-produced-protein analogous to γ-macroglobulin[7]. Also, methods were developed in the 1960’s for inducing immunoglobulin-producing tumors (plasmacytomas) in mice, thus also providing a source of homogeneous immunoglobulins of various isotypes, including IgM (reviewed in [8]). More recently, expression of engineered immunoglobulin genes in tissue culture can be used to produce IgM with specific alternations and thus to identify the molecular requirements for features of interest.

Structure of polymeric IgM

As noted above, immunoglobulins include light chains and heavy chains. The light chain (λ or κ) is a protein of ~220 amino acids, composed of a variable domain, VL (a segment of approximately 110 amino acids), and a constant domain, CL (also approximately 110 amino acids long). The µ heavy chain of IgM is a protein of ~576 amino acids, and includes a variable domain (VH ~110 amino acids), four distinct constant region domains (Cµ1, Cµ2, Cµ3, Cµ4, each ~110 amino acids) and a “tailpiece” of ~20 amino acids. The µ heavy chain bears oligosaccharides at five asparagine residues. The oligosaccharides on mouse and human IgM have been partially characterized by a variety of techniques, including NMR, lectin binding, various chromatographic systems and enzymatic sensitivity (reviewed in[9]). The structure of the oligosaccharides at each site varies in detail, and the predominant oligosaccharides – biantennary, triantennary, high mannose --differ among the sites.

Schematic model of IgM
A) The µL heterodimer, sometimes called a halfmer, with variable (VH, VL) and constant region (Cµ1, Cµ2, Cµ3, Cµ4tp; CL) domains. The cysteines that mediate disulfide bonds between µ chains are shown as red arrowheads, so that a cysteine disulfide bond appears as a red double arrowhead (red diamond).
B) The IgM “monomer” (µL)2. The disulfide bonds between Cµ2 domains are represented by a red double arrowhead.
C, D) Two models for J chain-containing IgM pentamer that have appeared in various publications at various times. As in (B), the disulfide bonds between Cµ2 domains and the disulfide bonds between Cµ4tp domains are represented by a red double arrowhead; the Cµ3 disulfide bonds are represented (for clarity) by long double-headed arrows. The connectivity, i.e., the inter-chain disulfide bonding of the µ chains, is denoted like electrical connectivity. In (C) the Cµ3 disulfide bonds join µ chains in parallel with the Cµ4tp disulfide bonds, and these disulfide bonds join µ chains in series with the Cµ2 disulfide bonds. In (D) the Cµ2 and Cµ4tp disulfide bonds join µ chains in parallel and both types join µ chains in series with the Cµ3 disulfide bonds.


The multimeric structure of IgM is shown schematically in Figure 1. Figure 1a shows the “heterodimer” composed of one light chain, denoted L, and one heavy chain, denoted µ. The heavy and light chains are held together both by disulfide bonds (depicted as red triangles) and by non-covalent interactions.

Figure 1b shows two µL units linked by a disulfide bond in the Cµ2 domains; this (µL)2 structure is often referred to as the IgM “monomer”, as it is analogous in some ways to the structure of immunoglobulin G (IgG). On the basis of its sedimentation velocity and appearance in electron micrographs, it was inferred that IgM is mostly a “pentamer”, i.e., a polymer composed of five “monomers” [(µL)2]5, and was originally depicted by the models in Figures 1c and 1d, with disulfide bonds between the Cµ3 domains and between the tail pieces [10][11]. Also shown is that pentameric IgM includes a third protein, the J chain. J chain (J for joining) was discovered as a covalently bonded component of polymeric IgA and IgM [12][13]. J chain is a small (~137 amino acids), acidic protein. As shown, J chain joins two µ chains via disulfide bonds involving cysteines in the tailpieces[14].

Molecular requirements for forming polymeric IgM

It was initially expected that J chain would be important for forming the polymeric immunoglobulins, and indeed polymerization of IgA depends strongly (but not absolutely) on J chain [15][16]. In contrast, polymeric IgM forms efficiently in the absence of J chain[17][18].

As noted above, the predominant form of human and mouse IgM is pentamer. By way of comparison, IgM from frog (Xenopus) is predominantly hexamer [19][20], IgM from bony fish is predominantly tetramer, and IgM from cartilaginous fish (shark) is predominantly pentamer[21][22]. The predominance of pentamer in mouse and human IgM notwithstanding, it was evident that these IgM’s could also exist as hexamer[23][24]. Subsequent studies using recombinant DNA expression systems indicated that hexamer is a major form of mouse IgM, when the IgM is produced under conditions where the incorporation of J chain is prevented, either by producing IgM in cells that lack J chain[17] or by producing IgM with a µ heavy chain that lacks the cysteine in the tailpiece[25][26]. In summary, hexameric IgM never contains J chain; pentameric IgM can be formed so as to include or not include J chain [27].

An important difference between the µ and γ heavy chains is the availability of cysteines for forming disulfide bonds between heavy chains. In the case of the γ heavy chain, the only inter-γ bonds are formed by cysteines in the hinge, and accordingly each γ chain binds to only one other γ chain. By contrast, the Cµ2.and Cµ3 domains and the tailpiece each include a cysteine that form a disulfide bond with another µ chain. As noted above, the cysteines in the Cµ2 domains mediate the formation of monomeric IgM (µL)2. The tailpiece along with the included cysteine is necessary and sufficient for the formation of polymeric immunoglobulins. That is, deleting the tailpiece from the µ heavy chain prevents the formation of polymeric IgM[28]. Conversely, cells expressing a γ heavy chain that has been modified to include the tailpiece produce polymeric IgG[29][30][31].

The role of the cysteine in the Cµ3 domain is more subtle. As noted above, figures 1c and 1d represent possible models for pentameric IgM. In these models each µ chain is envisaged to bind two other µ chains. However, neither model alone can fully account for the structure of polymeric IgM. For example, the model in Figure 1c predicts that the disulfide bond between the Cµ2 domains is essential for making disulfide-bonded polymeric IgM. The model in Figure 1d predicts that the disulfide bond between the Cµ3 domains is essential. In fact disulfide bonded, polymeric, IgM can still be made if any one of the three cysteines is absent. In the context of models in which each µ chain interacts with only two other µ chains, these results suggest that some molecules are like Figure 1C and some like Figure 1D. However, the availability of three cysteines for inter-µ chain bonding suggests that the µ chains might each bind three other µ chains, as illustrated in Figure 2. In the same spirit, figure 2C presents a model for J chain-containing pentamer that reflects evidence that J chain joins µ chains that are not joined to other µ chains by the cysteines in the Cµ3 domains. These and other models, both regular and irregular are discussed elsewhere[26][32].

Some alternative ways of linking µ chains
A, B) These figures depict two of many possible models of inter-µ chain disulfide bonding in hexameric IgM. As in Figure 1, the Cµ2 disulfide bonds and the Cµ4tp disulfide bonds are represented by a red double arrowhead, and the Cµ3 disulfide bonds are represented by the long double-headed arrows. In both models A and B each type of disulfide bond (Cµ2-Cµ2; Cµ3-Cµ3; Cµ4tp-Cµ4tp) joins µ chains in series with each of the others. Methods for distinguishing these and other models are discussed in reference [28].
C) This representation of pentameric IgM illustrates how J chain might be bonded to µ chains that are not linked via Cµ3 disulfide bonds


Pentameric IgM is typically represented as containing a single J chain per polymer, but in actuality the measurements of J chain stoichiometry have ranged from one J molecule per polymer to three J molecules per polymer[33][34][35][36]. The wide range might be due to technical problems, such as incomplete radiolabeling or imprecisely quantitating an Ouchterlony line. However, the variation might also be due to heterogeneity in the IgM preparations, i.e., the various preparations might have differed substantially in their content of J-containing and J-deficient polymers.

Tertiary and quaternary structure of the µ constant region

To gain insight into the detailed three-dimensional structure of the µ chain, the individual Cµ2, Cµ3 and Cµ4tp domains were produced separately in E. coli and then analyzed by a variety of methods, including sedimentation rate, X-ray crystallography, and NMR spectroscopy. As in the case of other immunoglobulins, the domains of the µ heavy chain have the characteristic overlying β-sheets comprising seven strands, stabilized by the intra-domain disulfide bonds. Overall, the IgM constant region has a “mushroom-like” structure, where the Cµ2-Cµ3 domains are a disk analogous to the head of the mushroom and the Cµ4tp domains protrude like a short stem[37].

Interaction of IgM with other physiological systems

As listed here and described elsewhere, IgM interacts with several other physiological molecules.

  1. IgM can bind complement component C1 and activate the classical pathway, leading to opsonization of antigens and cytolysis.
  2. IgM binds to the polyimmunoglobulin receptor (pIgR) in a process that brings IgM to mucosal surfaces, such as the gut lumen and into breast milk. This binding depends on J chain[38].
  3. Two other Fc receptors that bind IgM have been detected. The Fc/R, like pIgR, binds polymeric IgM and IgA. The Fc/R can mediate endocytosis, and its expression in the gut suggests a role in mucosal immunity. FcR (formerly known as Toso/Faim3) binds IgM exclusively and can mediate cellular uptake of IgM-conjugated antigen[39]]. Inactivation of the corresponding genes in knock-out mice produces a phenotype, but the physiological functions of these receptors are still uncertain[40][41].

In vivo production of IgM

In germ-line cells (sperm and ova) the genes that will eventually encode immunoglobulins are not in a functional form (see V(D)J recombination. In the case of the heavy chain, three germ-line segments, denoted V, D and J are ligated together and adjoined to the DNA encoding the µ heavy chain constant region. Early in ontogeny, B cells express both the µ and the δ heavy chains; co-expression of these two heavy chains, each bearing the same V domain depends on alternative splicing and alternative poly-A addition sites. The expression of the other isotypes (γ, ε and α) is effected by another type of DNA rearrangement, a process called Immunoglobulin class switching. [42]

Clinical significance and other points

IgM is the first immunoglobulin expressed in the human fetus (around 20 weeks)[43] and phylogenetically the earliest antibody to develop.[44]

IgM antibodies appear early in the course of an infection and usually reappear, to a lesser extent, after further exposure. IgM antibodies do not pass across the human placenta (only isotype IgG).

These two biological properties of IgM make it useful in the diagnosis of infectious diseases. Demonstrating IgM antibodies in a patient's serum indicates recent infection, or in a neonate's serum indicates intrauterine infection (e.g. congenital rubella syndrome).

The development of anti-donor IgM after organ transplantation is not associated with graft rejection but it may have a protective effect.[45]

IgM in normal serum is often found to bind to specific antigens, even in the absence of prior immunization.[46] For this reason IgM has sometimes been called a "natural antibody". This phenomenon is probably due to the high avidity of IgM that allow it to bind detectably even to weakly cross-reacting antigens that are naturally occurring. For example, the IgM antibodies that bind to the red blood cell A and B antigens might be formed in early life as a result of exposure to A- and B-like substances that are present on bacteria or perhaps also on plant materials.

IgM antibodies are mainly responsible for the clumping (agglutination) of red blood cells if the recipient of a blood transfusion receives blood that is not compatible with their blood type.

See also

References

  1. ↑ "Immunoglobulin M". The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (Fourth ed.). Houghton Mifflin Company. 2004.
  2. ↑ Bruce Alberts; Alexander Johnson; Julian Lewis; Peter Walter; Martin Raff; Keith Roberts (2002). "Chapter 24". Molecular Biology of the Cell (4th ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-8153-3288-6.
  3. ↑ Racine R, McLaughlin M, Jones DD, et al. (2011). "IgM production by bone marrow plasmablasts contributes to long-term protection against intracellular bacterial infection". J. Immunol. 186 (2): 1011–21. PMC 3208352 Freely accessible. PMID 21148037. doi:10.4049/jimmunol.1002836.
  4. ↑ "Chapter 62". Bailey & Love's Short Practice of Surgery (25th ed.). p. 1102.
  5. ↑ Heidelberger, M. and K. Pedersen (1937). "The molecular weight of antibodies". J. Exp. Med. 65 (3): 393–414.
  6. ↑ Kabat, E. "The molecular weight of antibodies". J. Exp. Med., 1939. 69(1): p. 103-118.
  7. ↑ Waldenström, J.,. "Incipient myelomatisis or "essential" hyoerglobulinemis with fibrinogenopenia -- a new syndrome?". Acat. Med. Scandinav., 1943. 142: p. 216-247.
  8. ↑ Potter, M. "The early history of plasma cell tumors in mice, 1954-1976". Adv. Cancer. Res., 2007. 98: p. 17-51.
  9. ↑ Monica, T (1995). "Characterization of the glycosylation of a human IgM produced by a human-mouse hybridoma". Glycobiology. 5 (2): 175–185.
  10. ↑ Beale, D. and A. Feinstein. "Studies on the Reduction of a Human 19 s Immunoglobulin M". Biochemical Journal, 1969. 112: p. 187-194.
  11. ↑ Milstein, C.P., et al.,. "Interchain disulfide bridges of mouse Immunoglobulin M". Biochemical Journal, 1975. 151: p. 615-624.
  12. ↑ Halpern, M.S. and M.E. Koshland. "Novel subunit of secretory IgA". Nature, 1970. 228: p. 1276-1278.
  13. ↑ Mestecky, J., J. Zikin, and W. Butler. "Immunoglobulin M an secretory immunoglobulin A: presence of common polypeptide chain different from light chains". Science, 1971. 171: p. 1163-1165.
  14. ↑ Frutiger, S.; et al. "Disulfide bond assignment in human J chain and its covalent pairing with immunoglobulin M". Biochemistry, 1992. 31: p. 12643-12647.
  15. ↑ Johansen, F.E., R. Braathen, and P. Brandtzaeg. "Role of J chain in secretory immunoglobulin formation". Scand J Immunol, 2000. 52(3): p. 240-8.
  16. ↑ Sørensen, V.; et al. "Structural requirements for incorporation of J chain into human IgM and IgA". Internat. Immunol., 2000. 12(1): p. 19-27.
  17. 1 2 Cattaneo, A. and M.S. Neuberger. "Polymeric immunoglobulin M is secreted by transfectants of non-lymphoid cells in the absence of immunoglobulin J chain". The EMBO Journal, 1987. 6(9): p. 2753-2758.
  18. ↑ Fazel, S., E.J. Wiersma, and M.J. Shulman. "Interplay of J chain and disulfide bonding in assembly of polymeric IgM". International Immunology, 1997. 9: p. 1149-1158.
  19. ↑ Parkhouse, R., B. Askonas, and R. Dourmashkin. "Electron microscopic studies of mouse immunoglobulin M; structure and reconstitution following reduction". Immunology, 1970. 18(4): p. 575-584.
  20. ↑ Schwager, J. and I. Hadji-Azimi. "Mitogen-induced B-cell differentiation in Xenopus laevis". Differentiation, 1984. 27(3): p. 182-188.
  21. ↑ Fillatreau, S.; et al. "The astonishing diversity of Ig classes and B cell repertoires in teleost fish". Frontiers in Immunology, 2013. 4: p. 1-14.
  22. ↑ Getahun, A.; et al. "Influence of the mu-chain C-terminal sequence on polymerization of immunoglobulin M". Immunology, 1999. 97: p. 408-413.
  23. ↑ Dolder, F. "Occurrence, Isolation and Interchain Bridges of Natural 7-S Immunoglobulin M in Human Serum". Biochimica Et Biophysica Acta, 1971. 236: p. 675-685.
  24. ↑ Eskeland, T. and T.B. Christensen. "IgM molecules with and without J chain in serum and after purification, studied by ultracentrifugation, electrophoresis, and electronmicrosopy". Scand. J. Immunol,, 1975. 4: p. 217-228.
  25. ↑ Davis, A.C., K.H. Roux, and M.J. Shulman. "On the structure of polymeric IgM". European Journal of Immunology, 1988. 18: p. 1001-1008.
  26. 1 2 Davis, A.C.; et al. "Intermolecular disulfide bonding in IgM: effects of replacing cysteine residues in the µ heavy chain". The EMBO Journal, 1989. 8(9): p. 2519-2526.
  27. ↑ Collins, C., F.W. Tsui, and M.J. Shulman. "Differential activation of human and guinea pig complement by pentameric and hexameric IgM". Eur. J. Immunol., 2002. 32: p. 1802-1810.
  28. ↑ Davis, A.C.; et al. "Mutations of the mouse m H chain which prevent polymer assembly". Journal of Immunology, 1989. 43(4): p. 1352-1357.
  29. ↑ Smith, R.I.F., M.J. Coloma, and S.L. Morrison. "Addition of a m-tailpiece to IgG results in polymeric antibodies with enhanced effector functions including complement-mediated cytolysis by IgG4". Journal of Immunology, 1995. 154: p. 2226-2236.
  30. ↑ Sørensen, V.; et al. "Effect of the IgM and IgA secretory tailpieces on polymerization and secretion of IgM and IgG". Journal of Immunology, 1996. 156: p. 2858-2865.
  31. ↑ Smith, R. and S. Morrison. "Recombinant polymeric IgG: An approach to engineering more potent antibodies". Nature Biotechnology, 1994. 12: p. 683-688.
  32. ↑ Wiersma, E.J. and M.J. Shulman. "Assembly of IgM: role of disulfide bonding and noncovalent interactions". J. Immunol., 1995. 154: p. 5265-5272.
  33. ↑ Chapuis, R.M. and M.E. Koshland. "Mechanism of IgM polymerization". Proc.Nat.Acad.Sci.USA, 1974. 71(3): p. 657-661.
  34. ↑ Mihaesco, C., E. Mihaesco, and H. Metzger. "Variable J-chain content in human IgM". FEBS letters, 1973. 37(2): p. 303-306.
  35. ↑ Brandtzaeg, P. "Complex formation between secretory component and human immunoglobulin related to their content of J chain". Scand. J. Immunol,, 1976. 5: p. 411-419.
  36. ↑ Grubb, A.O. "Quantitation of J chain in human biological fluids by a simple immunochemical procedure". Acta Med. Scand., 1978. 204: p. 453-465.
  37. ↑ Müller, R.; et al. "High-resolutiion structures of the IgM Fc domainsreveal principles of its hexamer formation". Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 2013. 110(25): p. 10183-10188.
  38. ↑ Johansen, F. E., Braathen, R. & Brandtzaeg, P. "Role of J chain in secretory immunoglobulin formation". Scand. J. Immunol. 2000. 52, 240-8.
  39. ↑ Shima, H.; et al. "Identification of TOSO/FAIM3 as an Fc receptor for IgM". Int Immunol, 2010. 22(3): p. 149-56.
  40. ↑ Ouchida, R.; et al. "Critical role of the IgM Fc receptor in IgM homeostasis, B-cell survival, and humoral immune responses". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A., 2012. 109(40): p. E2699-706.
  41. ↑ Heidelberger, M. and K. Pedersen, The molecular weight of antibodies. J. Exp. Med., 1937. 65(3): p. 393-414. 2. Kabat, E., The molecular weight of antibodies. J. Exp. Med., 1939. 69(1): p. 103-118. 3. Waldenström, J., Incipient myelomatisis or "essential" hyoerglobulinemis with fibrinogenopenia -- a new syndrome? Acat. Med. Scandinav., 1943. 142: p. 216-247. 4. Potter, M., The early history of plasma cell tumors in mice, 1954-1976. Adv. Cancer. Res., 2007. 98: p. 17-51. 5. Monica, T., et al., Characterization of the glycosylation of a human IgM produced by a human-mouse hybridoma. Glycobiology, 1995. 5(2): p. 175-185. 6. Beale, D. and A. Feinstein, Studies on the Reduction of a Human 19 s Immunoglobulin M. Biochemical Journal, 1969. 112: p. 187-194. 7. Milstein, C.P., et al., Interchain disulfide bridges of mouse Immunoglobulin M. Biochemical Journal, 1975. 151: p. 615-624. 8. Halpern, M.S. and M.E. Koshland, Novel subunit of secretory IgA. Nature, 1970. 228: p. 1276-1278. 9. Mestecky, J., J. Zikin, and W. Butler, Immunoglobulin M an secretory immunoglobulin A: presence of common polypeptide chain different from light chains. Science, 1971. 171: p. 1163-1165. 10. Frutiger, S., et al., Disulfide bond assignment in human J chain and its covalent pairing with immunoglobulin M. Biochemistry, 1992. 31: p. 12643-12647. 11. Sørensen, V., et al., Structural requirements for incorporation of J chain into human IgM and IgA. Internat. Immunol., 2000. 12(1): p. 19-27. 12. Johansen, F.E., R. Braathen, and P. Brandtzaeg, Role of J chain in secretory immunoglobulin formation. Scand J Immunol, 2000. 52(3): p. 240-8. 13. Cattaneo, A. and M.S. Neuberger, Polymeric immunoglobulin M is secreted by transfectants of non-lymphoid cells in the absence of immunoglobulin J chain. The EMBO Journal, 1987. 6(9): p. 2753-2758. 14. Fazel, S., E.J. Wiersma, and M.J. Shulman, Interplay of J chain and disulfide bonding in assembly of polymeric IgM. International Immunology, 1997. 9: p. 1149-1158. 15. Parkhouse, R., B. Askonas, and R. Dourmashkin, Electron microscopic studies of mouse immunoglobulin M; structure and reconstitution following reduction. Immunology, 1970. 18(4): p. 575-584. 16. Schwager, J. and I. Hadji-Azimi, Mitogen-induced B-cell differentiation in Xenopus laevis. Differentiation, 1984. 27(3): p. 182-188. 17. Fillatreau, S., et al., The astonishing diversity of Ig classes and B cell repertoires in teleost fish. Frontiers in Immunology, 2013. 4: p. 1-14. 18. Getahun, A., et al., Influence of the mu-chain C-terminal sequence on polymerization of immunoglobulin M. Immunology, 1999. 97: p. 408-413. 19. Dolder, F., Occurrence, Isolation and Interchain Bridges of Natural 7-S Immunoglobulin M in Human Serum. Biochimica Et Biophysica Acta, 1971. 236: p. 675-685. 20. Eskeland, T. and T.B. Christensen, IgM molecules with and without J chain in serum and after purification, studied by ultracentrifugation, electrophoresis, and electronmicrosopy. Scand. J. Immunol,, 1975. 4: p. 217-228. 21. Davis, A.C., K.H. Roux, and M.J. Shulman, On the structure of polymeric IgM. European Journal of Immunology, 1988. 18: p. 1001-1008. 22. Davis, A.C., et al., Intermolecular disulfide bonding in IgM: effects of replacing cysteine residues in the µ heavy chain. The EMBO Journal, 1989. 8(9): p. 2519-2526. 23. Collins, C., F.W. Tsui, and M.J. Shulman, Differential activation of human and guinea pig complement by pentameric and hexameric IgM. Eur. J. Immunol., 2002. 32: p. 1802-1810. 24. Davis, A.C., et al., Mutations of the mouse m H chain which prevent polymer assembly. The Journal of Immunology, 1989. 43(4): p. 1352-1357. 25. Smith, R.I.F., M.J. Coloma, and S.L. Morrison, Addition of a m-tailpiece to IgG results in polymeric antibodies with enhanced effector functions including complement-mediated cytolysis by IgG4. Journal of Immunology, 1995. 154: p. 2226-2236. 26. Sørensen, V., et al., Effect of the IgM and IgA secretory tailpieces on polymerization and secretion of IgM and IgG. The Journal of Immunology, 1996. 156: p. 2858-2865. 27. Smith, R. and S. Morrison, Recombinant polymeric IgG: An approach to engineering more potent antibodies. Nature Biotechnology, 1994. 12: p. 683-688. 28. Wiersma, E.J. and M.J. Shulman, Assembly of IgM: role of disulfide bonding and noncovalent interactions. J. Immunol., 1995. 154: p. 5265-5272. 29. Chapuis, R.M. and M.E. Koshland, Mechanism of IgM polymerization. Proc.Nat.Acad.Sci.USA, 1974. 71(3): p. 657-661. 30. Mihaesco, C., E. Mihaesco, and H. Metzger, Variable J-chain content in human IgM. FEBS letters, 1973. 37(2): p. 303-306. 31. Brandtzaeg, P., Complex formation between secretory component and human immunoglobulin related to their content of J chain. Scand. J. Immunol,, 1976. 5: p. 411-419. 32. Grubb, A.O., Quantitation of J chain in human biological fluids by a simple immunochemical procedure. Acta Med. Scand., 1978. 204: p. 453-465. 33. Müller, R., et al., High-resolutiion structures of the IgM Fc domainsreveal principles of its hexamer formation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 2013. 110(25): p. 10183-10188. 34. Shima, H., et al., Identification of TOSO/FAIM3 as an Fc receptor for IgM. Int Immunol, 2010. 22(3): p. 149-56. 35. Ouchida, R., et al., Critical role of the IgM Fc receptor in IgM homeostasis, B-cell survival, and humoral immune responses. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A., 2012. 109(40): p. E2699-706. 36. Kubagawa, H.; et al. "The old but new IgM Fc receptor (FcmuR)". Curr Top Microbiol Immunol, 2014. 382: p. 3-28. horizontal tab character in |last1= at position 112 (help)
  42. ↑ Murphy, K; Weaver, C (2016). Janeway's Immunobiology. New York, NY: Garland Science/Taylor and Francis. p. 195. ISBN 9780815345053.
  43. ↑ van Furth R, Schuit HR, Hijmans W (1965). "The immunological development of the human fetus". J. Exp. Med. 122 (6): 1173–88. PMC 2138097 Freely accessible. PMID 4159036. doi:10.1084/jem.122.6.1173.
  44. ↑ Review of Medical Physiology by William Francis Ganong
  45. ↑ McAlister CC, Gao ZH, McAlister VC, et al. (February 2004). "Protective anti-donor IgM production after crossmatch positive liver-kidney transplantation". Liver Transpl. 10 (2): 315–9. PMID 14762873. doi:10.1002/lt.20062.
  46. ↑ Jayasekera JP, Moseman EA, Carroll MC (2007). "Natural antibody and complement mediate neutralization of influenza virus in the absence of prior immunity". J. Virol. 81 (7): 3487–94. PMC 1866020 Freely accessible. PMID 17202212. doi:10.1128/JVI.02128-06.
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