East Ambae language
East Ambae | |
---|---|
Region | Ambae, Vanuatu |
Native speakers | 5,000 (2001)[1] |
Language codes | |
ISO 639-3 |
omb |
Glottolog |
east2443 [2] |
East Ambae (also known as Omba, Oba, Aoba, Walurigi, Lolovoli, Northeast Aoba, and Northeast Ambae) is an Oceanic language spoken on Ambae, Vanuatu. The data in this article will concern itself with the Lolovoli dialect of the North-East Ambae language.
Phonology
North-East Ambae distinguishes 5 vowels and 16 consonants, shown in the tables below.
Bilabial | Alveolar | Velar | Labiovelar | Glottal | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Voiceless Stop | t | k | |||
Prenasalised Voiced Stop | ᵐb | ⁿd | ᵑɡ | ᵑɡʷ | |
Nasal | m | n | ŋ | mʷ | |
Fricative | β | s | h | ||
Tap/Trill | r | ||||
Lateral Approximant | l | ||||
Glide | w |
Front | Central | Back | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Close | i | u | |||
Mid | e | o | |||
Open | a |
Morphology
Pronominals
In Ambae there are four different pronominal forms, one set of free forms, independent pronouns and three sets of bound forms, subject proclitics, object enclitics and possessive suffixes. All sets of pronominals distinguish between singular, dual and plural and between inclusive and exclusive in the first person. Independent pronouns are preceded by the personal article when the head of a noun phrase.
Independent Pronouns
Person | Number | ||
---|---|---|---|
Singular | Dual | Plural | |
1INC | gideru | gide | |
1EXCL | neu | gamaru | gamai |
2 | niko | gimiru | gimiu |
3 | ngie | garue | ngire |
Subject Proclitics
The subject proclitic is the first part of a verb phrase and can attach to an aspect, mood, negative particle or verb head.[5] Dual forms cliticise to the marker ru. In Lolovoli, no= is applied when cliticised in 1st person exclusive singular.
Person | Number | ||
---|---|---|---|
Singular | Dual | Plural | |
1INC | da=ru | da= | |
1EXCL | na=, no= | ga=ru | ga= |
2 | go= | ne=ru | ne= |
3 | Ø, na=, vi= | ra=ru | ra= |
Examples:
Go=ni inu rongo na malogu 2SGS=IRR drink feel ACC kava "You will taste the Kava"
Da=hivo da=si~siu 1NSG.INS=go.down 1NSG.INS=REDUP~fish "Let's go down and fish."
Object Enclitics
Object enclitics occur when attached to the predicate head or last adverb in a verb phrase. These only occur in singular forms and all 3rd person forms.[6]
Person | Number | ||
---|---|---|---|
Singular | Dual | Plural | |
1INC | gideru | gide | |
1EXCL | =eu | gamaru | gamai |
2 | =go | gimiru | gimiu |
3 | =a =e | =ra, =re | =ra, =re |
Examples:
Ra=u hui i gide 3NSG=TEL ask PERS 1NSG.IN "They asked us." Go=mese wehe i netu-ku 2SGS=DEHOR hit PERS child-1SGP "Don't hit my children."
Possessive Suffixes
Possessive suffixes are attached to the head noun in a direct possessive construction, or a relational classifier in an indirect possessive construction.[6]
Person | Number | ||
---|---|---|---|
Singular | Dual | Plural | |
1INC | -da=ru | -da, -de | |
1EXCL | -ku | -ma=ru | -mai |
2 | -mu | -me=ru | -miu |
3 | -na, -ne | =ra, =re | =ra, =re |
Examples:
Nago-mu u memea face-2SGP TEL red "Your face is red."
no-ku bue CL.GEN-1SGP knife "my knife"
Possession
East Ambae has four different possessive constructions, these are the distinctions between direct and indirect possession, and simplex and complex possession (Hyslop, 2001, p. 165).[7]
If the possessor is marked on the possessed noun, this is a direct possessive construction, whereas if the possessor is marked on a relational classifier rather than the possessee, this is an indirect possessive construction. Additionally, a simplex construction, where the possessor is pronominal, a possessive suffix occurs on the possessee or the relevant classifier, while a complex construction is one in which the possessor is represented by a nominal (Hyslop, 2001, p. 166).[7]
The table below illustrates the four different possessive constructions.
Direct | Indirect | |
Simplex | possessee-poss.suffix
netu-ku child-1SGP my child |
classifier-poss.suffix possessee
me-mu malogu CL:DRINK-2SGP kava your kava |
Complex | possessee-i possessor
netu-i Margaret child-CONST Margaret Margaret's child |
possessee classifier-i possessor
malogu me-i retahigi kava CL:DRINK-CONST chief the chief's kava |
According to Hyslop (2001, p. 167), while it is a morphosyntactic difference between direct and indirect possessive constructions, it is a semantically motivated distinction. In a direct possessive construction, nouns that function as the possessee can be said to be inalienably possessed, which refers to a permanent and inherent connection between the possessor and possessee that is indissoluble. Indirect possessive construction refers to alienable possession, a relationship between two referents of a less permanent and inherent type than inalienable possession, of an item that is to be 'possessed' in the conventional sense (Hyslop, 2001, p. 176).[7]
Inalienable Possession
There are two distinct categories in East Ambae that nominals taking part in inalienable possession can belong to, these being those reflecting an intimate relationship to the possessor, and part-whole and positional relation expressions (Hyslop, 2001, p. 168).[7] Those that reflect an intimate relationship to the possessor, the 'self' can be divided into four sub-categories: kin relations, body parts and associated body products, natural behaviour and personal attributes, and intimate personal property (Hyslop, 2001, p. 169).[7] These sub categories are explored below.
Kin
A direct possessive construction is used in all expressions of relationships between kin (Hyslop, 2001, p. 169).
hava-da | dolegi | |
family-1NSG.INP | all | |
all of our family |
tama-i | netu-i | Roselyn | |
father-CONST | child-CONST | Roselyn | |
Roselyn's husband |
tue-i | re | maresu | |
same.sex.sib-CONST | PL | child | |
the (female) children's sister(s) or
the (male) children's brother(s) or the children's brother(s) and sister(s) |
Body Parts and Products
Any body part of a person or animal is referred to using the direct possessive construction (Hyslop, 2001, p. 170).[7]
vulu-ku | |
hair-1SGP | |
my hair |
vulu-i | Kenneth | |
hair-CONST | Kenneth | |
Kenneth's hair |
vulu-i | toa | |
feather-CONST | chicken | |
(all/the) chicken's feathers |
In addition, any bodily features or fluids/secretions (such as tattoos and a person or animal's odour) that could be considered part of, or an extension of the body are inalienably possessed (Hyslop, 2001, p. 170).[7]
Go=ni | leo | huri | na | bona-i | bigi | mate | |
2SGS=IRR | see | PURP | ACC | smell-CONsT | meat | dead | |
You must look out for the smell of rotting meat |
Tatai-ne | ra=u | garea | |
tattoo-3SGP | 3NSGS=TEL | good | |
Her tattoos are nice |
Gutu-mu | lu-mu? | |
louse-2SGP | on-2SGP | |
Do you have lice? |
Behaviour and Personal Attributes
Natural behaviours, physical attributes, emotions, and mental processes (such as sleep, age, anger, and thought) enter into a direct possessive construction as personal attributes such as these are seen as an inalienable aspect of the concept of the self (Hyslop, 2001, p. 171).[7]
Maturu-ku | mo | vanai | |
sleep-1SGP | REAL | come | |
I am sleepy (Lit. My sleep is coming) |
Higao-mu | gai-vihe? | |
year-2SGP | NUM-how.many | |
How old are you? (Lit. Your years are how many?) |
Mero-na | u | lague | |
anger-3SGP | TEL | big | |
She is very angry (Lit. Her anger is big) |
Domi-mu | ra=u | hesi | |
thought-2SGP | 3NSGS=TEL | bad | |
You have wicked thoughts! (Lit. Your thoughts are bad!) |
Intimate Personal Property
This class of objects can be possessed or 'owned' in the traditional sense, however, in the East Ambae culture, these objects are so closely associated with a person's existence that they are considered inalienable objects, and when referred to, it is using the direct possessive construction. These objects that are considered 'intimate' include things such as a person's pillow, as well as a person's clothes, which are seen as an extension of the body. This can also be said for an animal's cave or bird's nest (Hyslop, 2001, p. 172 & 173).[7]
lumwe-ku | |
pillow-1SGP | |
my pillow |
Go=ni | gevu-gi | na | bari-mu | |
2SGS=IRR | clothes-APPL | ACC | skirt-2SGP | |
You will dress in your skirt |
mwagoni-re | |
nest-3NGSP | |
their nest |
Part-Whole Relations
Part-whole relationships are expressed in a direct possessive construction as it is used to describe parts of objects and plants that are divisible into recognised parts in the same way as body part relations are expressed. The part is the 'possessed' head noun and the whole is the 'possessor' (Hyslop, 2001, p. 174).[7]
rau-i | gai | |
leaf-CONST | tree | |
leaf (leaves) of a tree |
qetu-qetu-i | vale-na | |
wall-REDUP-CONST | house-3SGP | |
the walls of his house |
This relationship is also used to refer to pieces of a whole. This is done by using the anticausativeised form of a verb, describing the way the object was divided, such as vise 'split', or kore 'break' (as seen in the examples below), and by taking the construct suffix, the form is marked as being a nominal (Hyslop, 2001, p. 175).[7]
ma-vise-i | qeta | |
ANTI-split-CONST | taro | |
a piece of taro |
ma-kore-i | avi | |
ANTI-break-CONST | firewood | |
a piece of firewood |
Positional Relations
Positional relations are a small subclass of bound relational location nouns and function as the possessee noun in a direct possessive construct, used to define the position of one object in relation to another, such as ulu- 'above' and mawiri- 'left, as shown below (Hyslop, 2001, p. 175).[7]
Dodo | maeto | lo | ulu-de | |
cloud | black | LOC | above-1NSG.INP | |
There were black clouds above us |
Danuta | mo | toga | lo | mawiri-ku | |
Danuta | REAL | sit | LOC | left-1SGP | |
Danuta was sitting on my left |
Alienable Possession
Four different relational classifiers are used to express indirect possession, the use of a particular relational classifier is dependent on the possessive relationship between the possessed object and the possessor, rather than any characteristic of the possessee (Hyslop, 2001, p. 176).[7]
The four relational classifiers are:
- ga- 'food possession'
- me- 'drink possession'
- bula- 'natural or valued object possession'
- no- 'general possession'
Relational Classifier ga-
This classifier indicates that the referent of the possessee noun is a food item. This can be used for any edible item including food that has already been eaten, food that has ben prepared and ready to eat, unprepared or uncooked food, and so on. Usually, the ga- relational classifier is used only to refer to food that is ready to be eaten, so an animal yet to be slaughtered or plant yet to be harvested would be referred to using the bula- classifier (Hyslop, 2001, p. 177).[7]
Kenneth | u | geni | na | ga-na | loli | beno | |
Kenneth | TEL | eat | ACC | CL.food-3SGP | lolly | already | |
Kenneth has already eaten her lollies |
Ga-da | hinaga | u | manoga | |
CL.food-1NSG.INP | food | TEL | cooked | |
Our food is cooked |
Only one relation expressed by ga- does not relate to food possession, and that is illness, despite perhaps expecting it to be categorised inalienably as a body part or product one can never describe one's illness using a direct possessive construct (Hyslop, 2001, p. 177).[7]
ga-ra | sege-ana | |
CL.FOOD-3NSGP | sick-NR | |
their illness(es) |
Relational Classifier me-
This classifier indicates that the referent of the possessee noun is something for the possessor to drink, this can be the possession drinkable items such as ti 'tea' or wai 'water', as well as some plants classified as drinkable rather than edible, such as tovu 'sugarcane' and lamani 'lemon' and medicine, whether it is in liquid or tablet form as even then you swallow it with water (Hyslop, 2001, p. 178).[7]
me-ku | tovu | |
CL.drink-1SGP | sugarcane | |
my sugarcane |
Go=bitu | na | lamani | me-i | Lulu | |
2SGS=pick | ACC | lemon | CL.DRINK-CONST | Lulu | |
Pick some lemons for Lulu to drink |
Go=dono | na | me-mu | panadol | |
2SGP=swallow | ACC | CL.DRINK-2SGP | panadol | |
Swallow your panadol |
Relational Classifier bula-
The bula- classifier mainly refers to the relationship between 'natural entities' and their possessor, such as the ownership of crops and animals (Hyslop, 2001, p. 178).[7]
Bula-na | boe | mo | gani | na | bula-da | toa | tamwere | |
CL.NAT-3SGP | pig | REAL | eat | ACC | CL.NAT-1NSG.INP | chicken | always | |
His pig is always eating our chickens |
Nu | rivu | na | bule-ku | qeta | |
1SGS:TEL | plant | ACC | CL.NAT-1SGP | taro | |
I planted my taro |
Go=dono | na | me-mu | panadol | |
2SGP=swallow | ACC | CL.DRINK-2SGP | panadol | |
Swallow your panadol |
Ngie | u | voli | na | bule-ku | toli-gi | |
3SG | TEL | buy | ACC | CL.NAT-1SGP | seed-AL | |
She bought me some seeds (to plant) |
This category has been broadened to include some items introduced by Europeans that could be said to have some lifelike characteristics (Hyslop, 2001, p. 179).[7] An example of these items are listed below.
- redio 'radio'
- taragi 'car, automobile'
- hanwaj 'watch'
- tep 'tape recorder'
Another category includes items of adornment as they are not inalienably possessed as clothing is (Hyslop, 2001, p. 179).[7] Examples include:
- iaring 'earrings'
- lala 'bracelet'
Relational Classifier no-
The no- classifier is considered a general classifier, or the default category, for a range of possessive relationships that are not related to any of the other categories of possessive relationships previously mentioned (Hyslop, 2001, p. 180)[7] Possessive relationships included in this category are: traditional ownership of objects, activities such as work, the possessor's relationship with people who are not kin, and natural behaviours and mental processes that are not part of a direct possessive construction (Hyslop, 2001, p. 180).[7]
Ngire | no-ra | bubusi | hate | |
3NSG | CL.GEN-3NSGP | gun | NEG | |
They didn't have guns |
No-da | hala | mo | dadari | |
CL.GEN-1NSG.INP | visitor | REAL | arrive | |
Our visitor has arrived |
Gai-siwo | ra=u | vei | no-na | tabana-gi | |
NUM-nine | 3NSGS=TEL | do | CL.GEN-3SGP | work-NR | |
Nine (of them) did his work |
...mo | bulu-tegi | na | no-ra | domi-ana... | |
REAL | join-APPL | ACC | CL.GEN-3NSGP | think-NR | |
...they joined together their thoughts... |
Footnotes
- ↑ East Ambae at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015)
- ↑ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin; Bank, Sebastian, eds. (2016). "East Ambae". Glottolog 2.7. Jena: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.
- ↑ Hyslop 2001, p.28
- ↑ Hyslop 2001, p.32
- ↑
- 1 2 Hyslop 2001, p.96
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 Hyslop, C (2001). The Lolovoli dialect of the North-East Ambae language, Vanuatu. Canberra, ACT: Pacific Linguistics. pp. 165–180. ISBN 0858834537.
References
- Ivens, W. G. (1940). "A Grammar of the Language of Lobaha, Lepers' Island, New Hebrides, Melanesia". Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies, University of London. 10 (2): 345–363. doi:10.1017/s0041977x00087553.
- Hyslop, Catriona. (2001). The Lolovoli Dialect of the North-East Ambae Language, Vanuatu. Pacific Linguistics 515. Canberra: Australian National University.