Holy Roman Emperor
| Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire | |
|---|---|
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Imperial | |
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Reichsadler (Imperial Eagle) used by the emperors of the high medieval period | |
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Double-headed Reichsadler used by the Habsburg emperors of the early modern period | |
| Details | |
| Style | His Imperial Majesty |
| First monarch | Charlemagne |
| Last monarch | Francis II |
| Formation | 25 December 800 |
| Abolition | 6 August 1806 |
| Appointer | see Coronation of the Holy Roman Emperor |
| Pretender(s) | Position abolished |
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The Holy Roman Emperor (historically Romanorum Imperator "Emperor of the Romans") was the ruler of the Holy Roman Empire.
The title was held in conjunction with the rule of the Kingdom of Germany.[1][2][3]
From an autocracy in Carolingian times the title evolved into an elected monarchy chosen by the prince-electors. The Holy Roman Emperor was widely perceived to be the deputy of Jesus Christ on Earth by Roman Catholic rulers in Europe, and he often contradicted or rivaled the Pope, most notably during the Investiture controversy. In theory, the Holy Roman Emperor was primus inter pares (first among equals) among other Catholic monarchs. In practice, a Holy Roman Emperor was only as strong as his army and alliances made him.
After the Reformation, many of the subject states in Germany turned Protestant while the Emperor continued to be a Roman Catholic. Until the Reformation, the Emperor elect (imperator electus) was required to be crowned by the Pope before assuming the imperial title. Various royal houses of Europe, at different times, became hereditary holders of the title. In particular the Habsburgs kept the longest possession of the title. The Holy Roman Empire was dissolved by Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor as a result of the collapse of the polity during the Napoleonic wars.
Title
From the time of Constantine I (4th century) the Roman emperors had, with very few exceptions, taken on a role as promoters and defenders of Christianity. The title of Emperor became defunct in Western Europe after the deposition of Romulus Augustulus in AD 476, although the rulers of the "barbarian kingdoms" continued to recognize the Eastern Emperor at least nominally well into the 6th century; both the title and connection between Emperor and Church continued in the Eastern Roman Empire until 1453, when it fell to the forces of the Ottoman Empire.
In the west, the title of Emperor (Imperator) was revived in 800, which also renewed ideas of imperial–papal cooperation. As the power of the papacy grew during the Middle Ages, popes and emperors came into conflict over church administration. The best-known and most bitter conflict was that known as the Investiture Controversy, fought during the 11th century between Henry IV and Pope Gregory VII.
After Charlemagne was crowned Emperor of the Romans (Imperator Romanorum) by Pope Leo III, his successors maintained the title until the death of Berengar I of Italy in 924. No pope appointed an emperor again until the coronation of Otto the Great in 962. Under Otto and his successors, much of the former Carolingian kingdom of Eastern Francia fell within the boundaries of the Holy Roman Empire. The various German princes elected one of their peers as King of the Germans, after which he would be crowned as emperor by the Pope. After Charles V's coronation, all succeeding emperors were called elected Emperor due to the lack of papal coronation, but for all practical purposes they were simply called emperors.
The term "sacrum" (i.e. "holy") in connection with the medieval Roman Empire was first used in 1157 under Frederick I Barbarossa.[4] Charles V was the last Holy Roman Emperor to be crowned by the Pope (1530). The final Holy Roman Emperor-elect, Francis II, abdicated in 1806 during the Napoleonic Wars that saw the Empire's final dissolution.
The standard designation of the Holy Roman Emperor was "August Emperor of the Romans" (Romanorum Imperator Augustus). When Charlemagne was crowned in 800, he was styled as "most serene Augustus, crowned by God, great and pacific emperor, governing the Roman Empire," thus constituting the elements of "Holy" and "Roman" in the imperial title. The word Holy had never been used as part of that title in official documents.[5]
The word Roman was a reflection of the principle of translatio imperii (or in this case restauratio imperii) that regarded the (Germanic) Holy Roman Emperors as the inheritors of the title of Emperor of the Western Roman Empire, despite the continued existence of the Eastern Roman Empire. In German-language historiography, the term Römisch-deutscher Kaiser ("Roman-German emperor") is used to distinguish the title from that of Roman Emperor on one hand, and that of German Emperor (Deutscher Kaiser) on the other. The English term "Holy Roman Emperor" is a modern shorthand for "emperor of the Holy Roman Empire" not corresponding to the historical style or title.[6]
Succession of the Holy Roman Emperors
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Successions to the kingship were controlled by a variety of complicated factors. Elections meant the kingship of Germany was only partially hereditary, unlike the kingship of France, although sovereignty frequently remained in a dynasty until there were no more male successors. Some scholars suggest that the task of the elections was really to solve conflicts only when the dynastic rule was unclear, yet the process meant that the prime candidate had to make concessions, by which the voters were kept on side, which were known as Wahlkapitulationen (election capitulations).
The Electoral council was set at seven princes (three archbishops and four secular princes) by the Golden Bull of 1356. It remained so until 1648, when the settlement of the Thirty Years' War required the addition of a new elector to maintain the precarious balance between Protestant and Catholic factions in the Empire. Another elector was added in 1690, and the whole college was reshuffled in 1803, a mere three years before the dissolution of the Empire.
After 1438, the Kings remained in the house of Habsburg and Habsburg-Lorraine, with the brief exception of Charles VII, who was a Wittelsbach. Maximilian I (Emperor 1508–1519) and his successors no longer travelled to Rome to be crowned as Emperor by the Pope. Maximilian therefore named himself Elected Roman Emperor (Erwählter Römischer Kaiser) in 1508 with papal approval. This title was in use by all his uncrowned successors. Of his successors only Charles V, the immediate one, received a papal coronation.
The Holy Roman Emperors
This list includes all 47 emperors of the Holy Roman Empire, whether or not they styled themselves Holy Roman Emperor. There are some gaps in the tally. For example, Henry the Fowler was King of Germany but not Emperor; Emperor Henry II was numbered as his successor as German King. The Guideschi follow the numeration for the Duchy of Spoleto.
Carolingian dynasty
Traditional historiography assumes a continuity between the Carolingian Empire and the Holy Roman Empire, while a modern convention takes the coronation of Otto I in 962 as the starting point of the Holy Roman Empire (although the term Sacrum Imperium Romanum was not in use before the 13th century).
The rulers who were crowned as Emperors in the West before 962 were as follows:
| Portrait | Name | Reign | Relationship with Predecessor(s) | Others Title(s) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
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Charles I, the Great (Charlemagne) (742–814) |
25 December 800 | 28 January 814 | • King of the Lombards • King of the Franks | |
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Louis I, the Pious (778–840) |
11 September 813[7] | 20 June 840 | Son of Charles I | • King of the Franks • King of Aquitaine |
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Lothair I (795–855) |
5 April 823 | 29 September 855 | Son of Louis I | • King of Bavaria • King of Italy • King of Middle Francia |
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Louis II (825–875) |
29 September 855 | 12 August 875 | Son of Lothair I | • King of Bavaria • King of Italy • King of Middle Francia |
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Charles II, the Bald (823–877) |
29 December 875 | 6 October 877 | Son of Louis I | • King of West Francia • King of Italy |
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Charles III, the Fat (839–888) |
12 February 881 | 13 January 888 | Grandson of Louis I | • King of West Francia • King of East Francia • King of Italy |
Widonid dynasty
| Portrait | Name | Reign | Relationship with Predecessor(s) | Others Title(s) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
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Guy I (?–894) |
891 | 12 December 894 | Great-great grandson of Charles I | • King of Italy • Duke of Spoleto |
 |
Lambert I (880–898) |
30 April 892 | 15 October 898 | Son of Guy I | • King of Italy • Duke of Spoleto |
Carolingian dynasty
| Portrait | Name | Reign | Relationship with Predecessor(s) | Others Title(s) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
 |
Arnulph (850–899) |
22 February 896 | 8 December 899 | Nephew of Charles III | • King of Italy • King of East Francia |
Bosonid dynasty
| Portrait | Name | Reign | Relationship with Predecessor(s) | Others Title(s) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
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Louis III, the Blind (880–928) |
22 February 901 | 21 July 905 | Grandson of Louis II | • King of Italy • King of Provence |
Unruoching dynasty
| Portrait | Name | Reign | Relationship with Predecessor(s) | Others Title(s) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
 |
Berengar I (845–924) |
December 915 | 7 April 924 | Grandson of Louis I | • King of Italy • Margrave of Friuli |
There was no emperor in the west between 924 and 962.
While earlier Germanic and Italian monarchs had been crowned as western Roman Emperors, the actual Holy Roman Empire is usually considered to have begun with the crowning of the Saxon king Otto I. It was officially an elective position, though at times it ran in families, notably the four generations of the Salian dynasty in the 11th century. From the end of the Salian dynasty through the middle 15th century, the Emperors drew from many different German dynasties, and it was rare for the throne to pass from father to son. That changed with the ascension of the Austrian House of Habsburg, as an unbroken line of Habsburgs would hold the Imperial throne until the 18th century, later a cadet branch known as the House of Habsburg-Lorraine would likewise pass it from father to son until the abolition of the Empire in 1806. Notably, the Habsburgs also dispensed with the requirement that emperors be crowned by the pope before exercising their office. Starting with Ferdinand I, all successive Emperors forwent the traditional coronation.
Ottonian dynasty
| Portrait | Name | Reign | Relationship with Predecessor(s) | Others Title(s) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
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Otto I, the Great (912–973) |
2 February 962 | 7 May 973 | Great-great-great grandson of Louis I | • King of Italy • King of Germany • Duke of Saxony |
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Otto II, the Red (955–983) |
25 December 967 | 7 December 983 | Son of Otto I | • King of Italy • King of Germany |
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Otto III (980–1002) |
21 May 996 | 23 January 1002 | Son of Otto II | • King of Italy • King of Germany |
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Henry II[8] (973–1024) |
7 June 1002 | 14 February 1014 | Second cousin of Otto III | • King of Italy • King of Germany • Duke of Bavaria |
Salian dynasty
| Portrait | Name | Reign | Relationship with Predecessor(s) | Others Title(s) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
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Conrad II, the Elder[9] (990–1039) |
26 March 1027 | 4 June 1039 | Great-great-grandson of Otto I | • King of Burgundy • King of Italy • King of Germany |
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Henry III, the Black (1017–1056) |
25 December 1046 | 5 October 1056 | Son of Conrad II | • King of Burgundy • King of Italy • King of Germany |
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Henry IV (1050–1116) |
31 March 1084 | 7 August 1106 | Son of Henry III | • King of Burgundy • King of Italy • King of Germany |
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Henry V[10] (1086–1125) |
13 April 1111 | 23 May 1125 | Son of Henry IV | • King of Italy • King of Germany |
Supplinburg dynasty
| Portrait | Name | Reign | Relationship with Predecessor(s) | Others Title(s) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
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Lothair II[11] (1075–1137) |
4 June 1133 | 4 December 1137 | Far descendant of Otto I | • King of Italy • King of Germany |
Staufen dynasty
| Portrait | Coat of Arms | Name | Reign | Relationship with Predecessor(s) | Others Title(s) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
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Frederick I, Barbarossa (1122–1190) |
8 June 1155 | 10 June 1190 | Great-grandson of Henry IV | • King of Germany • King of Italy • King of Burgundy |
 |
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Henry VI (1165–1197) |
14 April 1191 | 28 September 1197 | Son of Frederick I | • King of Germany • King of Italy • King of Burgundy • Co-King of Sicily |
Welf dynasty
| Portrait | Coat of Arms | Name | Reign | Relationship with Predecessor(s) | Others Title(s) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
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Otto IV (1175–1218) |
9 June 1198 | 1215 | Great-grandson of Lothair II | • King of Germany • King of Italy • King of Burgundy |
Staufen dynasty
| Portrait | Coat of Arms | Name | Reign | Relationship with Predecessor(s) | Others Title(s) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
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Frederick II (1194–1250) |
22 November 1220 | 13 December 1250 | Son of Henry VI | • King of Germany • King of Italy • King of Sicily • King of Jerusalem |
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Conrad IV (1228–1254) |
13 December 1250 | 21 May 1254 | Son of Frederick II | • King of Germany • King of Italy • King of Sicily • King of Jerusalem |
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Conrad V (1252–1268) |
21 May 1254 | 29 October 1268 | Son of Conrad IV | • King of Germany • King of Italy • King of Sicily • King of Jerusalem |
House of Luxembourg
| Portrait | Coat of Arms | Name | Reign | Relationship with Predecessor(s) | Others Title(s) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
 |
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Henry VII (1275–1313) |
29 June 1312 | 24 August 1313 | Far descendant of Louis III | • King of Germany • King of Italy • Count of Luxemburg |
House of Wittelsbach
| Portrait | Coat of Arms | Name | Reign | Relationship with Predecessor(s) | Others Title(s) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
 |
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Louis IV, the Bavarian (1282–1347) |
October 1314 | 11 October 1347 | Far descendant of Lothair II and Henry IV | • King of Germany • King of Italy • Duke of Bavaria |
House of Luxembourg
| Portrait | Coat of Arms | Name | Reign | Relationship with Predecessor(s) | Others Title(s) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
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Charles IV (1316–1378) |
11 July 1346 | 29 November 1378 | Grandson of Henry VII | • King of Germany • King of Italy • King of Bohemia • King of Burgundy • Count of Luxemburg |
 |
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Sigismund (1368–1437) |
10 September 1410 | 9 December 1437 | Son of Charles IV | • King of Germany • King of Italy • King of Bohemia • King of Hungary and Croatia |
House of Habsburg
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House of Wittelsbach
| Portrait | Coat of Arms | Name | Reign | Relationship with Predecessor(s) | Others Title(s) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
 |
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Charles VII (1697–1745) |
12 February 1742 | 20 January 1745 | Great-great grandson of Ferdinand II | • King of Bohemia • Elector of Bavaria |
House of Habsburg-Lorraine
| Portrait | Coat of Arms | Name | Reign | Relationship with Predecessor(s) | Others Title(s) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
 |
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Francis I (1708–1765) |
13 September 1745 | 18 August 1765 | Great-grandson of Ferdinand III; Son-in-law of Charles VI | • King of Germany • Archduke of Austria • Grand Duke of Tuscany • Duke of Lorraine |
 |
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Joseph II (1741–1790) |
19 August 1765 | 20 February 1790 | Son of Francis I | • King of Germany • King of Bohemia • King of Hungary and Croatia • Archduke of Austria |
 |
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Leopold II (1747–1792) |
21 February 1790 | 1 March 1792 | Son of Francis I | • King of Germany • King of Bohemia • King of Hungary and Croatia • Archduke of Austria • Grand Duke of Tuscany |
 |
|
Francis II (1768–1835) |
4 March 1792 | 6 August 1806 | Son of Leopold II | • King of Germany • King of Bohemia • King of Hungary and Croatia • Archduke of Austria |
Coronation
The Emperor was crowned in a special ceremony, traditionally performed by the Pope in Rome. Without that coronation, no king, despite exercising all powers, could call himself Emperor. In 1508, Pope Julius II allowed Maximilian I to use the title of Emperor without coronation in Rome, though the title was qualified as Electus Romanorum Imperator ("elected Emperor of the Romans"). Maximilian's successors adopted the same titulature, usually when they became the sole ruler of the Holy Roman Empire.[13] Maximilian's first successor Charles V was the last to be crowned Emperor.
| Emperor | Coronation date | Officiant | Location |
|---|---|---|---|
| Charles I | 25 December 800 | Pope Leo III | Rome, Italy |
| Louis I | 5 October 816 | Pope Stephen IV | Reims, France |
| Lothair I | 5 April 823 | Pope Paschal I | Rome, Italy |
| Louis II | 15 June 844 | Pope Leo IV | Rome, Italy |
| Charles II | 29 December 875 | Pope John VIII | Rome, Italy |
| Charles III | 12 February 881 | Rome, Italy | |
| Guy III of Spoleto | 21 February 891 | Pope Stephen V | Rome, Italy |
| Lambert II of Spoleto | 30 April 892 | Pope Formosus | Ravenna, Italy |
| Arnulf of Carinthia | 22 February 896 | Rome, Italy | |
| Louis III | 15 or 22 February 901 | Pope Benedict IV | Rome, Italy |
| Berengar | December 915 | Pope John X | Rome, Italy |
| Otto I | 2 February, 962 | Pope John XII | Rome, Italy |
| Otto II | 25 December, 967 | Pope John XIII | Rome, Italy |
| Otto III | 21 May, 996 | Pope Gregory V | Monza, Italy |
| Henry II | 14 February 1014 | Pope Benedict VIII | Rome, Italy |
| Conrad II | 26 March 1027 | Pope John XIX | Rome, Italy |
| Henry III | 25 December 1046 | Pope Clement II | Rome, Italy |
| Henry IV | 31 March 1084 | Antipope Clement III | Rome, Italy |
| Henry V | 13 April 1111 | Pope Paschal II | Rome, Italy |
| Lothair III | 4 June 1133 | Pope Innocent II | Rome, Italy |
| Frederick I | 18 June 1155 | Pope Adrian IV | Rome, Italy |
| Henry VI | 14 April 1191 | Pope Celestine III | Rome, Italy |
| Otto IV | 4 October 1209 | Pope Innocent III | Rome, Italy |
| Frederick II | 22 November 1220 | Pope Honorius III | Rome, Italy |
| Henry VII | 29 June 1312 | Ghibellines cardinals | Rome, Italy |
| Louis IV | 17 January 1328 | Senator Sciarra Colonna | Rome, Italy |
| Charles IV | 5 April 1355 | Pope Innocent VI's cardinal | Rome, Italy |
| Sigismund | 31 May 1433 | Pope Eugenius IV | Rome, Italy |
| Frederick III | 19 March 1452 | Pope Nicholas V | Rome, Italy |
| Charles V | 24 February 1530 | Pope Clement VII | Bologna, Italy |
See also
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Wikimedia Commons has media related to Holy Roman Emperors. |
- Concordat of Worms
- Emperor for other uses of the title "Emperor" in Europe.
- First Council of the Lateran
- Holy Roman Emperors family tree
- Holy Roman Empress
- King of the Romans
- List of German monarchs
- Holy Roman Empire
- King of Italy
- Kingdom of Italy (Holy Roman Empire)
References
- ↑ Peter Hamish Wilson, The Holy Roman Empire, 1495–1806, MacMillan Press 1999, London, page 2
- ↑ Erik von Kuehnelt-Leddihn: The Menace of the Herd or Procrustes at Large – Page: 164
- ↑ Robert Edwin Herzstein, Robert Edwin Herzstein: The Holy Roman Empire in the Middle Ages: universal state or German catastrophe?
- ↑ Peter Moraw, Heiliges Reich, in: Lexikon des Mittelalters, Munich & Zurich: Artemis 1977–1999, vol. 4, columns 2025–2028.
- ↑ Bryce, James (1968). The Holy Roman Empire. Macmillan. p. 530.
- ↑ I.e. the adjective "holy" is not intended as modifying "emperor"; the term "Holy Roman Emperor" begins to become current in the interbellum period (1920s to 1930s), e.g. The New International Encyclopædia vol. 10 (1927), p. 675; Carlton J. H. Hayes, A Political and Cvltvral History of Modern Europe vol. 1 (1932), p. 225. Formerly the title was also rendered "German-Roman emperor" in English.
- ↑ Egon Boshof: Ludwig der Fromme. Darmstadt 1996, p. 89
- ↑ Enumerated as successor of Henry I who was German King 919–936 but not Emperor.
- ↑ Enumerated as successor of Conrad I who was German King 911–918 but not Emperor
- ↑ Barraclough, Geoffrey (1984). The Origins of Modern Germany. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-30153-2.
- ↑ Enumerated as successor of Lothair II, who was King of Lotharingia 855–869 but not Emperor
- ↑ Enumerated as successor of Rudolph I who was German King 1273–1291.
- ↑ ” Wir Franz der Zweyte, von Gottes Gnaden erwählter römischer Kaiser Imperator Austriae, Fransiscus I (1804), Allerhöchste Pragmatikal-Verordnung vom 11. August 1804, The HR Emperor, p. 1
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