Hindu Kush

Coordinates: 35°N 71°E / 35°N 71°E / 35; 71

Hindu Kush

Hindu Kush

Hindu Kush range
Highest point
Peak Tirich Mir
Elevation 7,708 m (25,289 ft)
Coordinates 36°14′45″N 71°50′38″E / 36.24583°N 71.84389°E / 36.24583; 71.84389 
Geography
Topography of the Hindu Kush range[1]
Countries
Region Central Asia-South
Parent range Himalayas
Hindu Kush and its extending mountain ranges to the west.

The Hindu Kush (/kʊʃ, kuːʃ/; Pashto, Persian and Urdu: هندوکش‎), also known in Ancient Greek as the Caucasus Indicus (Ancient Greek: Καύκασος Ινδικός) or Paropamisadae (Ancient Greek: Παροπαμισάδαι), is an 800-kilometre-long (500 mi) mountain range that stretches near the Afghan-Pakistan border,[2][3] from central Afghanistan to northern Pakistan. It forms the western section of the Hindu Kush Himalayan Region (HKH).[4][5][6] It divides the valley of the Amu Darya (the ancient Oxus) to the north from the Indus River valley to the south.

The Hindu Kush range has numerous high snow-capped peaks, with the highest point in the Hindu Kush being Tirich Mir or Terichmir at 7,708 metres (25,289 ft) in the Chitral District of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. To the north, near its northeastern end, the Hindu Kush buttresses the Pamir Mountains near the point where the borders of China, Pakistan and Afghanistan meet, after which it runs southwest through Pakistan and into Afghanistan near their border.[2] The eastern end of the Hindu Kush in the north merges with the Karakoram Range.[7][8] Towards its southern end, it connects with the Spin Ghar Range near the Kabul River.[9][10]

According to Gnoli, "if we compare the first chapter of the Vidēvdād with the passages of geographical interest that we come across mainly in the great [Zoroastrian] yašts, we can conclude that the geographical area of Avesta was dominated by the Hindu Kush range at the center, the western boundary being marked by the districts of Margiana, Areia, and Drangiana, the eastern one by the Indo-Iranian frontier regions such as Gandhāra, Bunēr, the land of the Seven Rivers."[11] The Hindu Kush range region was later a historically significant centre of Buddhism with sites such as the Bamiyan Buddhas.[12][13] The range and communities settled in it hosted ancient monasteries, important trade networks, and travelers between Central Asia and South Asia.[14][15] The Hindu Kush range has also been the passageway during the invasions of the Indian subcontinent,[16][17] and continues to be important during modern era warfare in Afghanistan.[18][19]

Geology and formation

Geologically, the range is rooted in the formation of a subcontinent from a region of Gondwana that drifted away from East Africa about 160 million years ago, around the Middle Jurassic period.[20] [21] The Indian subcontinent, Australia and islands of Indian Ocean rifted further, drifting northeastwards, with the Indian subcontinent colliding with the Eurasian plate nearly 55 million years ago, towards the end of Palaeocene.[20] This collision created the Himalayas, including the Hindu Kush.[22]

The Hindu Kush range remains geologically active and are still rising.[23] It is prone to earthquakes.[24][25]

Origin of name

The origins of the name Hindu Kush are uncertain, with various theories being propounded by different scholars and writers.[26] According to Hobson-Jobson, the name might be a possible corruption of Indicus Caucasus, with another explanation mentioned first by Ibn Batuta remaining popular despite doubts upon it, and the modification of the name by some later writers into Hindu Koh is factitious and throws no light on the name's origin.[27]

The Persian-English dictionary[28] indicates that the word 'koš' [kʰoʃ] is derived from the verb ('koštan' کشتن [kʰoʃˈt̪ʰæn]), meaning "to kill". According to Francis Joseph Steingass, the word and suffix "-kush" means "a male; (imp. of kushtan in comp.) a killer, who kills, slays, murders, oppresses as azhdaha-kush".[29] A Practical Dictionary of the Persian Language gives the meaning of the word kush as "hotbed".[30] According to one interpretation, the name Hindu Kush means "kills the Hindu" or "Hindu killer" and is a reminder of the days when slaves from the Indian subcontinent died in the harsh weather typical of the Afghan mountains while being taken to Central Asia.[26][31][32] The World Book Encyclopedia states that the word kush means death, and was probably given to the mountains because of their dangerous passes.[33]

In his travel memoirs about India, the 14th century Moroccan traveller Muhammad Ibn Battuta mentioned crossing into India via the mountain passes of the Hindu Kush. In his Rihla, he mentions these mountains and the history of the range in slave trading.[34][15] Alexander von Humboldt stated that it can be learned from his work that the name only referred to a single mountain pass upon which many Indian slaves died of the cold weather.[35] Battuta wrote,

After this I proceeded to the city of Barwan, in the road to which is a high mountain, covered with snow and exceedingly cold; they call it the Hindu Kush, that is Hindu-slayer, because most of the slaves brought thither from India die on account of the intenseness of the cold.
— Ibn Batutta, Chapter XIII, Rihla – Khorasan[15]
An 1879 map of Hindu Kush and its passes by Royal Geographic Society. Kabul is in lower left, Kashmir in lower right.

The name Hindu Kush is relatively young, states Ervin Grötzbach, and it is "missing from the accounts of the early Arab geographers and occurs for the first time in Ibn Baṭṭuṭa (ca. 1330)". Ibn Baṭṭuṭa, states Grötzbach, saw the "origin of the name Hindu Kush (Hindu-killer) in the fact that numerous Hindu slaves died crossing the pass on their way from India to Turkestan".[36] In contrast, state Fosco Maraini and Nigel Allan, the earliest known usage occurs on a map published about 1000 CE.[37] According to Allan, the term Hindu Kush has been commonly seen to mean "Hindu killer", but two other meanings of the term include "sparkling snows of India" and "mountains of India" with "Kush" possibly a soft variant of Kuh which means "mountain". Hindu Kush in Arabic means mountains of India. To Arab geographers, states Allan, Hindu Kush was the frontier boundary where Hindustan started.[38][37]

According to McColl, the origins of the Hindu Kush name are controversial. Along with its origin in the perishing of Indian slaves, two other possibilities exist.[26] The term could be a corruption of Hindu Koh from pre-Islamic times where it separated Hindu population of southern Afghanistan from non-Hindu population in northern Afghanistan. The second possibility is that the name may be from the ancient Avestan language, with the meaning "water mountain".[26]

Other names

The mountain range was also called "Paropamisadae" by Hellenic Greeks in the late first millennium BC.[39]

Some 19th century Encyclopedias and gazetteers state that the term Hindu Kush originally applied only to the peak in the area of the Kushan Pass, which had become a centre of the Kushan Empire by the first century.[40]

Some scholars remove the space, and refer to Hindu Kush as "Hindukush".[41][42]

Mountains

The Hindu Kush is a formidable mountain range to cross with most peaks being between 14,500 and 17,000 feet, and some much higher. The mountains experience heavy snowfall and blizzards, with the lowest mountain pass through them being southern Shibar pass (9,000 feet) where the Hindu Kush range terminates.[18] Other mountain passes being generally about 12,000 or higher.[18] They become passable in late spring and summer.

The mountains of the Hindu Kush range diminish in height as they stretch westward. Near Kabul, in the west, they attain heights of 3,500 to 4,000 meters (11,500 to 13,100 ft); in the east they extend from 4,500 to 6,000 meters (14,800 to 19,700 ft). The average altitude of the Hindu Kush is 4,500 meters (14,800 feet).[43]

The Hindu Kush system stretches about 966 kilometres (600 mi) laterally,[43] and its median north-south measurement is about 240 kilometres (150 mi). Only about 600 kilometres (370 mi) of the Hindu Kush system is called the Hindu Kush mountains. The rest of the system consists of numerous smaller mountain ranges. Rivers that flow from the mountain system include the Helmand River, the Hari River and the Kabul River, watersheds for the Sistan Basin. The lower Sistan basin gets little rainfall (~50 mm per year) and the main source of water is the Helmand River which brings snowmelt water from the southern Hindu Kush. The smaller Khash, the Farah and the Arashkan (Harut) rivers bring water from the western Hindu Kush. The basin of these rivers serves the ecology and economy of the region west to Hindu Kush, but the water flow in these rivers fluctuates severely and has been a historical problem for any settlement. Extreme and extended droughts have been common.[44]

A Badakhshan valley (left), August in Hindu Kush.

The Hindu Kush are orographically described in several parts.[45] The western Hindu Kush, states Yarshater, rises to over 5,100 meters and stretches between Darra-ye Sekari and the Shibar Pass in the west and the Khawak Pass in the east.[45] The central Hindu Kush rising over 6,800 meters has numerous spurs between the Khawak Pass in the east and the Durāh Pass in the west. The eastern Hindu Kush with peaks over 7,000 meter extends from the Durāh Pass to the Baroghil Pass at the border between northeastern Afghanistan and north Pakistan. The ridges between Khawak Pass and Badakshan is over 5,800 meter and is called the Kaja Mohammed range.[45]

The Hindu Kush, states Yarshater, are a part of the "young Eurasian mountain range consisting of metamorphic rocks such as schist, gneiss and marble, as well as of intrusives such as granite, diorite of different age and size". The northern regions of the Hindu Kush witness Himalayan winter and have glaciers, while its southeastern end witness the fringe of Indian subcontinent summer monsoons.[45] From about 1,300 to 2,300 meter, states Yarshater, "sklerophyllous forests are predominant with Quercus and Olea (wild olive); above that up to a height of about 3,300 m one finds coniferous forests with cedars, Picea, Abies, Pinus, and junipers". The inner valleys of the Hindu Kush see little rain and have desert vegetation.[45]

Numerous high passes ("kotal") transect the mountains, forming a strategically important network for the transit of caravans. The most important mountain pass is the Salang Pass (Kotal-e Salang) (3,878 m); it links Kabul and points south of it to northern Afghanistan. The completion of a tunnel within this pass in 1964 reduced travel time between Kabul and the north to a few hours. Previously access to the north through the Kotal-e Shibar (3,260 m) took three days. The Salang tunnel at 3,363 m and the extensive network of galleries on the approach roads were constructed with Soviet financial and technological assistance and involved drilling 1.7 miles through the heart of the Hindu Kush. The Salang tunnel is on Afghan Highway 76, northwest of Golbahar town, and has been an active area of armed conflict with various parties trying to control it.[46]

These mountainous areas are mostly barren, or at the most sparsely sprinkled with trees and stunted bushes. Very ancient mines producing lapis lazuli are found in Kowkcheh Valley, while gem-grade emeralds are found north of Kabul in the valley of the Panjsher River and some of its tributaries. According to Walter Schumann, the West Hindu Kush mountains have been the source of finest Lapis Lazuli for thousands of years.[47]

Eastern Hindu Kush

The Eastern Hindu Kush range, also known as the High Hindu Kush range, is mostly located in northern Pakistan and the Nuristan and Badakhshan provinces of Afghanistan. The Chitral District of Pakistan is home to Tirich Mir, Noshaq, and Istoro Nal, the highest peaks in the Hindu Kush. The range also extends into Ghizar, Yasin Valley, and Ishkoman in Pakistan's Northern Areas.

Chitral, Pakistan, is considered to be the pinnacle of the Hindu Kush region. The highest peaks, as well as countless passes and massive glaciers, are located in this region. The Chiantar, Kurambar, and Terich glaciers are amongst the most extensive in the Hindu Kush and the meltwater from these glaciers form the Kunar River, which eventually flows south into Afghanistan and joins the Bashgal, Panjshir, and eventually the much smaller Kabul River.

Highest mountains

Name Height Country
Tirich Mir 7,708 metres (25,289 ft)  Pakistan
Noshak 7,492 metres (24,580 ft)  Afghanistan,  Pakistan
Istor-o-Nal 7,403 metres (24,288 ft)  Pakistan
Saraghrar 7,338 metres (24,075 ft)  Pakistan
Udren Zom 7,140 metres (23,430 ft)  Pakistan
Lunkho e Dosare 6,901 metres (22,641 ft)  Afghanistan,  Pakistan
Kuh-e Bandaka 6,843 metres (22,451 ft)  Afghanistan
Koh-e Keshni Khan 6,743 metres (22,123 ft)  Afghanistan
Sakar Sar 6,272 metres (20,577 ft)  Afghanistan,  Pakistan
Kohe Mondi 6,234 metres (20,453 ft)  Afghanistan

History

Kabul, situated 5,900 feet (1,800 m) above sea level in a narrow valley, wedged between the Hindu Kush mountains

The mountains have historical significance in the Indian subcontinent and China. The Hindu Kush range was a major centre of Buddhism with sites such as the Bamiyan Buddhas.[48] It has also been the passageway during the invasions of the Indian subcontinent,[16][17] a region where the Taliban and Al Qaeda grew,[19][49] and to modern era warfare in Afghanistan.[18]

Buddha statue in 1896, Bamiyan
After statue destroyed by Islamist Taliban in 2001
Buddhas of Bamiyan, Afghanistan in 1896 (top) and after destruction in 2001 by the Taliban Islamists.[50]

Buddhism was widespread in the ancient Hindu Kush region. Ancient artwork of Buddhism include the giant rock carved statues called the Bamiyan Buddha, in the southern and western end of the Hindu Kush.[12] These statues were blown up by the Taliban Islamists.[50] The southeastern valleys of Hindu Kush connecting towards the Indus Valley region were a major centre that hosted monasteries, religious scholars from distant lands, trade networks and merchants of ancient Indian subcontinent.[14]

One of the early Buddhist schools, the Mahāsāṃghika-Lokottaravāda, was prominent in the area of Bamiyan. The Chinese Buddhist monk Xuanzang visited a Lokottaravāda monastery in the 7th century CE, at Bamiyan, Afghanistan. Birchbark and palm leaf manuscripts of texts in this monastery's collection, including Mahāyāna sūtras, have been discovered in the caves of Hindu Kush,[51] and these are now a part of the Schøyen Collection. Some manuscripts are in the Gāndhārī language and Kharoṣṭhī script, while others are in Sanskrit and written in forms of the Gupta script.[52][53]

According to Alfred Foucher, the Hindu Kush and nearby regions gradually converted to Buddhism by the 1st century CE, and this region was the base from where Buddhism crossed the Hindu Kush expanding into the Oxus valley region of Central Asia.[54] After the Islamic conquest of the region and Islam becoming the state religion, Buddhism vanished and locals became Muslims.[55][56][57]

Ancient

The significance of the Hindu Kush mountain range has been recorded since the time of Darius I of Persia. Alexander the Great entered the Indian subcontinent through the Hindu Kush as his army moved past Bactria into the Afghan valley in the spring of 329 BCE.[58] He moved towards the Indus valley river region in 327 BCE, his armies building several towns in this region over the intervening two years.[59]

After Alexander the Great's death in 323 BCE, the region became part of the Seleucid Empire, according to the ancient history of Strabo written in 1st century BCE, before it became a part of the Indian Maurya Empire around 305 BCE.[60] The region became a part of the Kushan Empire in centuries around the start of the common era.[61]

Medieval era

The lands north of the Hindu Kush, in the Hephthalite dominion, Buddhism was the predominant religion by mid 1st millennium CE.[62] These Buddhists were religiously tolerant and they co-existed with followers of Zoroastrianism, Manichaseism and Nestorian Christianity.[62][63] This Central Asia region along the Hindu Kush was taken over by Western Turks and Arabs by the eighth century, facing wars with mostly Iranians.[62] One major exception was the period in mid to late seventh century, when the Tang dynasty from China destroyed the Northern Turks and extended its rule all the way to Oxus River valley and regions of Central Asia bordering all along the Hindu Kush.[64]

Hindu Kush relative to Bactria, Bamiyan, Kabul and Gandhara (bottom right).

The subcontinent side and valleys of the Hindu Kush remained unconquered by the Islamic armies till the 9th century, even though they had conquered the southern regions of Indus River valley such as Sind.[65] Kabul fell to the army of Al-Ma'mun, the seventh Abbasid caliph, in 808 and the local king agreed to accept Islam and pay annual tributes to the caliph.[65] However, states André Wink, inscriptional evidence suggests that Kabul area near Hindu Kush had an early presence of Islam.[66]

Mahmud of Ghazni came to power in 998 CE, in Ghazna, Afghanistan south of Kabul and Hindu Kush range.[67] He began a military campaign that rapidly brought both sides of the Hindu Kush range under his rule. From his mountainous Afghan base, he systematically raided and plundered kingdoms in north India from east of the Indus river to west of Yamuna river seventeen times between 997 and 1030.[68] Mahmud of Ghazni raided the treasuries of kingdoms, sacked cities and destroyed Hindu temples, with each campaign starting every spring, but he and his army returned to Ghazni and Hindu Kush base before monsoons arrived in the northwestern part of the subcontinent.[67][68] He retracted each time, only extending Islamic rule into western Punjab.[69][70]

In 1017, the Iranian Islamic historian Al-Biruni was deported after a war that Mahmud of Ghazni won,[71] to northwest Indian subcontinent under Mahmud's rule. Al Biruni stayed in the region for about fifteen years, learnt Sanskrit and translated many Indian texts, and wrote about Indian society, culture, sciences and religion in Persian and Arabic. He stayed for some time in the Hindu Kush region, particularly near Kabul. In 1019, he recorded and described a solar eclipse in what is modern era Laghman Province of Afghanistan through which Hindu Kush pass.[71] Al Biruni also wrote about early history of the Hindu Kush region and Kabul kings, who ruled the region long before he arrived, but this history is inconsistent with other records available from that era.[66] Al Biruni was supported by Sultan Mahmud.[71] Al Biruni found it difficult to get access to Indian literature locally in the Hindu Kush area, and to explain this he wrote, "Mahmud utterly ruined the prosperity of the country, and performed wondeful exploits by which the Hindus became the atoms scattered in all directions, and like a tale of old in the mouth of the people. (...) This is the reason, too, why Hindu sciences have retired far from those parts of the country conquered by us, and have fled to places which our hand cannot yet reach, to Kashmir, Benares and other places".[72]

In late 12th century, the historically influential Ghurid empire led by Mu'izz al-Din ruled the Hindu Kush region.[73] He was influential in seeding the Delhi Sultanate, shifting the base of his Sultanate from south of the Hindu Kush range and Ghazni towards the Yamuna River and Delhi. He thus helped bring the Islamic rule to the northern plains of Indian subcontinent.[74]

The Moroccan traveller Ibn Battuta arrived in the Delhi Sultanate by passing through the Hindu Kush.[15] The mountain passes of the Hindu Kush range were used by Timur and his army and they crossed to launch the 1398 invasion of northern Indian subcontinent.[75] Timur, also known as Temur or Tamerlane in Western scholarly literature, marched with his army to Delhi, plundering and killing all the way.[76][77][78] He arrived in the capital Delhi where his army looted and killed its residents.[79] Then he carried the wealth and the captured slaves, returning to his capital through the Hindu Kush.[76][78][80]

Babur, the founder of Mughal Empire, was a patrilineal descendant of Timur with roots in Central Asia.[81] He first established himself and his army in Kabul and the Hindu Kush region. In 1526, he made his move into north India, won the Battle of Panipat, ending the last Delhi Sultanate dynasty, and starting the era of the Mughals.[82]

Slavery

Slavery, as with all major ancient and medieval societies, has been a part of Central Asia and South Asia history. The Hindu Kush mountain passes connected the slave markets of Central Asia with slaves seized in South Asia.[83][84][85] The seizure and transportation of slaves from Indian subcontinent became intense in and after the 8th century CE, with evidence suggesting that the slave transport involved "hundreds of thousands" of slaves from India in different periods of Islamic rule era.[84] According to John Coatsworth and others, the slave trading operations during the pre-Akbar Mughal and Delhi Sultanate era "sent thousands of Hindus every year north to Central Asia to pay for horses and other goods".[86][87] However, the interaction between Central Asia and South Asia through the Hindu Kush was not limited to slavery, it included trading in food, goods, horses and weapons.[88]

The practice of raiding tribes, hunting and kidnapping people for slave trading continued through the 19th century, at an extensive scale, around Hindu Kush. According to a British Anti-Slavery Society report of 1874, the Governor of Faizabad, Mir Ghulam Bey, kept 8,000 horses and cavalry men who routinely captured non-Muslim infidels (kafir) as well as Shia Muslims as slaves. Others alleged to be involved in slave trade were feudal lords such as Ameer Sheer Ali. The isolated communities in the Hindu Kush were one of the targets of these slave hunting expeditions.[89]

Modern era

Landscape of Afghanistan with a T-62 in the foreground.

In early 19th century, the Sikh Empire expanded under Ranjit Singh in the northwest till the Hindu Kush range.[90]

The Hindu Kush served as a geographical barrier to the British empire, leading to paucity of information and scarce direct interaction between the British colonial officials and Central Asian peoples. The British had to rely on tribal chiefs, Sadozai and Barakzai noblemen for information, and they generally downplayed the reports of slavery and other violence for geo-political strategic considerations.[91]

In the colonial era, the Hindu Kush were considered, informally, the dividing line between Russian and British areas of influence in Afghanistan. During the Cold War the Hindu Kush range became a strategic theatre, especially during the 1980s when Soviet forces and their Afghan allies fought the Mujahideen with support from the US allies channeled through Pakistan.[92][93][94] After the Soviet withdrawal and the end of the Cold War, many Mujahideen morphed into Taliban and Al Qaeda forces imposing a strict interpretation of Islamic law (Sharia), with Kabul, these mountains and other parts of Afghanistan as their base.[95][96] Other Mujahideen joined the Northern Alliance to oppose the Taliban rule.[96]

After September 11, 2001 terror attacks in New York, the American and ISAF campaign against Al Qaeda and their Taliban allies made the Hindu Kush once again a militarized conflict zone.[96][97][98]

Ethnography

Pre-Islamic populations of the Hindu Kush included Shins, Yeshkun,[99] Chiliss, Neemchas[100] Koli,[101] Palus,[101] Gaware,[102] Yeshkuns,[103] and Krammins.[103]

See also

References

  1. ↑ Hindu Kush, Encyclopedia Iranica
  2. 1 2 Mike Searle (2013). Colliding Continents: A geological exploration of the Himalaya, Karakoram, and Tibet. Oxford University Press. p. 157. ISBN 978-0-19-165248-6., Quote: "The Hindu Kush mountains run along the Afghan border with the North-West Frontier Province of Pakistan".
  3. ↑ George C. Kohn (2006). Dictionary of Wars. Infobase Publishing. p. 10. ISBN 978-1-4381-2916-7.
  4. ↑ "Hindu Kush Himalayan Region". ICIMOD. Retrieved 17 October 2014.
  5. ↑ "Mapping the vulnerability hotspots over Hindu-Kush Himalaya region to flooding disasters". Weather and Climate Extremes. 8: 46–58. doi:10.1016/j.wace.2014.12.001. Retrieved 2015-09-06.
  6. ↑ "Development of an ASSESSment system to evaluate the ecological status of rivers in the Hindu Kush-Himalayan region" (PDF). assess-hkh.at. Retrieved 2015-09-06.
  7. ↑ Karakoram Range: MOUNTAINS, ASIA, Encyclopedia Britannica
  8. ↑ Stefan Heuberger (2004). The Karakoram-Kohistan Suture Zone in NW Pakistan – Hindu Kush Mountain Range. vdf Hochschulverlag AG. pp. 25–26. ISBN 978-3-7281-2965-9.
  9. ↑ Spīn Ghar Range, MOUNTAINS, PAKISTAN-AFGHANISTAN, Encyclopedia Britannica
  10. ↑ Jonathan M. Bloom; Sheila S. Blair (2009). The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture. Oxford University Press. pp. 389–390. ISBN 978-0-19-530991-1.
  11. ↑ G. Gnoli (2011), Avestan Geography Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. III, Fasc. 1, pp. 44-47
  12. 1 2 Deborah Klimburg-Salter (1989), The Kingdom of Bamiyan: Buddhist art and culture of the Hindu Kush, Naples – Rome: Istituto Universitario Orientale & Istituto Italiano per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente, ISBN 978-0877737650 (Reprinted by Shambala)
  13. ↑ Claudio Margottini (2013). After the Destruction of Giant Buddha Statues in Bamiyan (Afghanistan) in 2001: A UNESCO's Emergency Activity for the Recovering and Rehabilitation of Cliff and Niches. Springer. pp. 5–6. ISBN 978-3-642-30051-6.
  14. 1 2 Jason Neelis (2010). Early Buddhist Transmission and Trade Networks: Mobility and Exchange Within and Beyond the Northwestern Borderlands of South Asia. BRILL Academic. pp. 114–115, 144, 160–163, 170–176, 249–250. ISBN 90-04-18159-8.
  15. 1 2 3 4 Ibn Battuta; Samuel Lee (Translator) (2010). The Travels of Ibn Battuta: In the Near East, Asia and Africa. Cosimo (Reprint). pp. 97–98. ISBN 978-1-61640-262-4.; Columbia University Archive
  16. 1 2 Konrad H. Kinzl (2010). A Companion to the Classical Greek World. John Wiley & Sons. p. 577. ISBN 978-1-4443-3412-8.
  17. 1 2 André Wink (2002). Al-Hind: The Slavic Kings and the Islamic conquest, 11th–13th centuries. BRILL Academic. pp. 52–53. ISBN 0-391-04174-6.
  18. 1 2 3 4 Frank Clements (2003). Conflict in Afghanistan: A Historical Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. pp. 109–110. ISBN 978-1-85109-402-8.
  19. 1 2 Michael Ryan (2013). Decoding Al-Qaeda's Strategy: The Deep Battle Against America. Columbia University Press. pp. 54–55. ISBN 978-0-231-16384-2.
  20. 1 2 Robert Wynn Jones (2011). Applications of Palaeontology: Techniques and Case Studies. Cambridge University Press. pp. 267–271. ISBN 978-1-139-49920-0.
  21. ↑ Hinsbergen, D. J. J. van; Lippert, P. C.; Dupont-Nivet, G.; McQuarrie, N.; Doubrovine; et al. (2012). "Greater India Basin hypothesis and a two-stage Cenozoic collision between India and Asia". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 109 (20): 7659–7664, for geologic Indian subcontinent see Figure 1. doi:10.1073/pnas.1117262109.
  22. ↑ S. Mukherjee; R. Carosi; P.A. van der Beek; et al. (2015). Tectonics of the Himalaya. Geological Society of London. pp. 55–57. ISBN 978-1-86239-703-3.
  23. ↑ Martin Beniston (2002). Mountain Environments in Changing Climates. Routledge. p. 320. ISBN 978-1-134-85236-9.
  24. ↑ Frank Clements (2003). Conflict in Afghanistan: A Historical Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. pp. 90–91. ISBN 978-1-85109-402-8.
  25. ↑ Afghanistan Pakistan Earthquake National Geographic;
    Afghanistan earthquake BBC News; See also October 2015 Hindu Kush earthquake and 2016 Afghanistan earthquake.
  26. 1 2 3 4 R. W. McColl (2014). Encyclopedia of World Geography. Infobase Publishing. pp. 413–414. ISBN 978-0-8160-7229-3.
  27. ↑ Henry Yule, A. C. Burnell; ed. by Kate Teltscher. Hobson-Jobson: The Definitive Glossary of British India. Oxford University Press. p. 258.
  28. ↑ Boyle, J.A. (1949). A Practical Dictionary of the Persian Language. Luzac & Co. p. 129.
  29. ↑ Francis Joseph Steingass (1992). A Comprehensive Persian-English Dictionary. Asian Educational Services. pp. 1030–1031 (kush means "killer, kills, slays, murders, oppresses"), p. 455 (khirs–kush means "bear killer"), p. 734 (shutur–kush means "camel butcher"), p. 1213 (mardum–kush means "man slaughter"). ISBN 978-81-206-0670-8.
  30. ↑ Boyle, J.A. (1949). A Practical Dictionary of the Persian Language (PDF). Luzac & Co. p. 131.
  31. ↑ Amy Romano (2003). A Historical Atlas of Afghanistan. Rosen Publishing Group. pp. 13–14. ISBN 978-0-8239-3863-6.
  32. ↑ [a] Michael Franzak (2010). A Nightmare's Prayer: A Marine Harrier Pilot's War in Afghanistan. Simon and Schuster. p. 241. ISBN 978-1-4391-9499-7.;
    [b] Ehsan Yarshater (2003). Encyclopædia Iranica. The Encyclopaedia Iranica Foundation. p. 312. ISBN 978-0-933273-76-4.
    [c] James Wynbrandt (2009). A Brief History of Pakistan. Infobase Publishing. p. 5. ISBN 978-0-8160-6184-6.;
    [d] Encyclopedia Americana. 14. 1993. p. 206.;
    [e] André Wink (2002). Al-Hind, the Making of the Indo-Islamic World: Early Medieval India and the Expansion of Islam 7th–11th Centuries. BRILL Academic. p. 110. ISBN 0-391-04173-8., Quote: "(..) the Muslim Arabs also applied the name 'Khurasan' to all the Muslim provinces to the east of the Great Desert and up to the Hindu-Kush ('Hindu killer') mountains, the Chinese desert and the Pamir mountains".
  33. ↑ The World Book Encyclopedia. 9 (1994 ed.). World Book Inc. 1990. p. 235.
  34. ↑ Dunn, Ross E. (2005). The Adventures of Ibn Battuta. University of California Press. pp. 171–178. ISBN 0-520-24385-4.
  35. ↑ Alexander von Humboldt; ed. by Stephen T. Jackson, Laura Dassow Walls. Views of Nature. University of Chicago Press. p. 68.
  36. ↑ Ervin Grötzbach (2012 Edition, Original: 2003), Hindu Kush, Encyclopaedia Iranica
  37. 1 2 Fosco Maraini et al, Hindu Kush, Encyclopaedia Britannica
  38. ↑ Allan, Nigel (2001). "Defining Place and People in Afghanistan". Post Soviet Geography and Economics. 8. 42: 545–560.
  39. ↑ Vogelsang, Willem (2002). The Afghans. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-19841-5. Retrieved 2010-08-22.
  40. ↑ 1890,1896 Encyclopedia Brittanica s.v. "Afghanistan", Vol I p.228.;
    1893, 1899 Johnson's Universal Encyclopedia Vol I p.61.;
    1885 Imperial Gazetteer of India, V. I p. 30.;
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