Orders of magnitude (mass)

Iron weights up to 50 kilograms depicted in Dictionnaire encyclopédique de l'épicerie et des industries annexes.

To help compare different orders of magnitude, the following lists describe various mass levels between 1040kg and 1053 kg.

Units of mass

SI multiples for gram (g)
Submultiples Multiples
Value SI symbol Name Value SI symbol Name
10−1 g dg decigram 101 g dag decagram
10−2 g cg centigram 102 g hg hectogram
10−3 g mg milligram 103 g kg kilogram
10−6 g µg microgram (mcg) 106 g Mg megagram (tonne)
10−9 g ng nanogram 109 g Gg gigagram
10−12 g pg picogram 1012 g Tg teragram
10−15 g fg femtogram 1015 g Pg petagram
10−18 g ag attogram 1018 g Eg exagram
10−21 g zg zeptogram 1021 g Zg zettagram
10−24 g yg yoctogram 1024 g Yg yottagram
Common prefixes are in bold face.[1]

The table below is based on the kilogram (kg), the base unit of mass in the International System of Units (SI). The kilogram is the only standard unit to include an SI prefix (kilo-) as part of its name. The gram (10−3 kg) is an SI derived unit of mass. However, the names of all SI mass units are based on gram, rather than on kilogram; thus 103 kg is a megagram (106 g), not a "kilokilogram".

The tonne (t) is a SI-compatible unit of mass equal to a megagram, or 103 kg. The unit is in common use for masses above about 103 kg and is often used with SI prefixes.

Other units

Other units of mass are also in use. Historical units include the stone, the pound, the carat, and the grain.

For subatomic particles, physicists use the mass equivalent to the energy represented by an electronvolt (eV). At the atomic level, chemists use the mass of one-twelfth of a carbon-12 atom (the dalton). Astronomers use the mass of the sun (M).

Below 1024 kg

Unlike other physical quantities, mass-energy does not have an a priori expected minimal quantity, as is the case with time or length, or an observed basic quantum as in the case of electric charge. Planck's law allows for the existence of photons with arbitrarily low energies. Consequently, there can only ever be an experimental lower bound on the mass of a supposedly massless particle; in the case of the photon, this confirmed lower bound is of the order of 3×10−27 eV = 10−62 kg.

Factor (kg) Value Item
1062 1.0×1062kg Mass equivalent of the energy of the lightest photon detected
1040 4.2×1040kg Mass equivalent of the energy of a photon at the peak of the spectrum of the cosmic microwave background radiation (0.235 meV/c2)
1036 1.8×1036kg One eV/c2, the mass equivalent of one electronvolt[2]
3.6×1036kg Electron neutrino, upper limit on mass (2eV/c2)[3]
1031 9.11×1031kg Electron (511keV/c2), the lightest elementary particle with a measured nonzero rest mass[4]
1030 3.0–5.5×1030kg. Up quark (as a current quark) (1.7–3.1MeV/c2)[5]
1028 1.9×1028kg Muon (106MeV/c2)[6]
1027
yoctogram (yg)
1.661×1027kg Atomic mass unit (u) or dalton (Da)
1.673×1027kg Proton (938.3MeV/c2)[7][8]
1.674×1027kg Hydrogen atom, the lightest atom
1.675×1027kg Neutron (939.6MeV/c2)[9][10]
1026 1.2×1026kg Lithium atom (6.941u)
3.0×1026kg Water molecule (18.015u)
8.0×1026kg Titanium atom (47.867u)
1025 1.1×1025kg Copper atom (63.546u)
1.6×1025kg Z boson (91.2GeV/c2)[11]
2.2×1025kg Higgs Boson (125GeV/c2)
3.1×1025kg Top quark (173GeV/c2),[12] the heaviest known elementary particle
3.2×1025kg Caffeine molecule (194u)
3.5×1025kg Lead-208 atom, the heaviest stable nuclide known
4.9×1025kg Oganesson-294 atom, the heaviest nuclide known

10−24 to 10−19 kg

Factor (kg) Value Item
1024
zeptogram (zg)
1.2×1024kg Buckyball molecule (720u)
1023 1.4×1023kg Ubiquitin, a small protein (8.6 kDa)[13]
5.5×1023kg A typical protein (median size of roughly 300 amino acids ~= 33 kDa)[14]
1022 1.1×1022kg Haemoglobin A molecule in blood (64.5 kDa)[15]
1021
attogram (ag)
1.65×1021kg Double-stranded DNA molecule consisting of 1,578 base pairs (995,000 daltons)[16]
4.3×1021kg Prokaryotic ribosome (2.6 MDa)[17]
7.1×1021kg Eukaryotic ribosome (4.3 MDa)[17]
7.6×1021kg Brome mosaic virus, a small virus (4.6 MDa)[18]
1020 3×1020kg Synaptic vesicle in rats (16.1 ± 3.8 MDa)[19]
6.8×1020kg Tobacco mosaic virus (41 MDa)[20]
1019 1.1×1019kg Nuclear pore complex in yeast (66 MDa)[21]
2.5×1019kg Human adenovirus (150 MDa)[22]

10−18 to 10−13 kg

Factor (kg) Value Item
1018
femtogram (fg)
1×1018kg HIV-1 virus[23][24]
4.7×1018kg DNA sequence of length 4.6 Mbp, the length of the E. coli genome[25]
1017 ~1×1017kg Vaccinia virus, a large virus[26]
1.1×1017kg Mass equivalent of 1 joule[27]
1016 3×1016kg Prochlorococcus cyanobacteria, the smallest (and possibly most plentiful)[28] photosynthetic organism on Earth[29][30]
1015
picogram (pg)
1×1015kg E. coli bacterium (wet weight)[31]
6×1015kg DNA in a typical diploid human cell (approximate)
1014 2.2×1014kg Human sperm cell[30][32]
6×1014kg Yeast cell (quite variable)[33][34]
1013 1.5×1013kg Dunaliella salina, a green algae (dry weight)[35]

10−12 to 10−7 kg

Factor (kg) Value Item
1012
nanogram (ng)
1×1012kg Average human cell (1 nanogram)[36]
2–3×1012kg HeLa human cell[37][38][39]
8×1012kg Grain of birch pollen[40]
1011    
1010 2.5×1010kg Grain of maize pollen[41]
3.5×1010kg Very fine grain of sand (0.063 mm diameter, 350 nanograms)
109
microgram (µg)
3.6×109kg Human ovum[30][42]
2.4×109kg US RDA for vitamin B12 for adults[43]
108 1.5×108kg US RDA for vitamin D for adults[44]
~2×108kg Uncertainty in the mass of the International Prototype Kilogram (IPK) (±~20 µg)[45]
2.2×108kg Planck mass[46]
~7×108kg One eyelash hair (approximate)[47]
107 1.5×107kg US RDA for iodine for adults[48]
2–3×107kg Fruit fly (dry weight)[49][50]

10×106 to 1kg

Factor (kg) Value Item
106
milligram (mg)
2.5×106kg Mosquitoes, common smaller species (about 2.5 milligrams)[51]
105
centigram (cg)
1.1×105kg Small granule of quartz (2 mm diameter, 11 milligrams)[52]
2×105kg Adult housefly (Musca domestica, 21.4milligrams)[53]
104
decigram (dg)
0.27–2.0×104kg Range of amounts of caffeine in one cup of coffee (27–200 milligrams)[54]
2×104kg Metric carat (200 milligrams)[55]
103
gram (g)
1×103kg One cubic centimeter of water (1gram)[56]
1×103kg US dollar bill (1 gram)[57]
~1×103kg Two raisins (approximately 1 gram)[58]
~8×103kg Coins of one Euro (7.5grams),[59] one U.S. dollar (8.1grams)[60] and one Canadian Loonie (7grams [pre-2012], 6.27grams [2012-])[61]
102
decagram (dag)
2–4×102kg Adult mouse (Mus musculus, 20–40grams)[62]
1.37×102kg Amount of ethanol defined as one standard drink in the U.S. (13.7grams)[63]
2.8×102kg Ounce (avoirdupois) (28.35grams)[55]
4.7×102kg Mass equivalent of the energy that is called 1 megaton of TNT equivalent[55][64]
10−1
hectogram   (hg)
0.1-0.2kg An orange (100–200 grams)[65]
0.454kg Pound (avoirdupois) (454grams)[55]

1 kg to 105 kg

Factor (kg) Value Item
1kg
kilogram (kg)
1kg One litre (0.001 m3) of water[66]
1–3kg Smallest breed of dog (Chihuahua)[67]
1–3kg Typical laptop computer, 2010[68]
1–3kg Adult domestic tortoise
2.5–4kg Newborn human baby[69]
4.0kg Women's shot[70]
4–5kg Housecat
7.26kg Men's shot[70]
101 9–27kg Medium-sized dog[71][72][73]
10–30kg A CRT computer monitor or television set
50kg Large dog breed (Great Dane)
70kg Adult human[74]
102 130–180kg Mature lion, female (130kg) and male (180kg)[75]
200–250kg Giant tortoise
240–450kg Grand piano[76][77]
400–900kg Dairy cow[78]
500–500,000kg A teaspoon (5 ml) of white dwarf material (0.5–500 tonnes)[79][80]
635 kg Heaviest human in history (Jon Brower Minnoch)
907.2kg 1 short ton (2000 pounds - U.S.)[55]
103
megagram (Mg)
1000kg Metric ton/tonne[55]
1000kg 1 cubic metre of water[66]
1016.05kg Ton (British) / 1 long ton (2240 pounds - U.S.)[55]
800–1600kg Typical passenger cars
3000–7000kg Adult elephant
104 1.1×104kg Hubble Space Telescope (11 tonnes)[81]
1.2×104kg Largest elephant on record (12 tonnes)
1.4×104kg Big Ben (bell) (14 tonnes)[82]
2.7×104kg ENIAC computer, 1946 (30 tonnes)
4×104kg Maximum gross mass (truck + load combined) of a semi-trailer truck in the EU (40–44 tonnes)[83]
5×104–6×104kg Tank; Bulldozer (50–60 tonnes)
6.0×104kg Largest single-piece meteorite, Hoba West Meteorite (60 tonnes)[84]
7.3×104kg Largest dinosaur, Argentinosaurus (73 tonnes)[85]
105 1.8×105kg Largest animal ever, a blue whale (180 tonnes)[86]
4.2×105kg International Space Station (417 tonnes)[87]
6×105kg World's heaviest aircraft: Antonov An-225 (maximum take-off mass: 600 tonnes, payload: 250 tonnes)[88]

106 to 1011 kg

Factor (kg) Value Item
106
gigagram (Gg)
1×106kg Trunk of the giant sequoia tree named General Sherman, largest living tree by trunk volume (1121 tonnes)[89]
2.0×106kg Launch mass of the Space Shuttle (2041 tonnes)[90]
6×106kg Largest clonal colony, the quaking aspen named Pando (largest living organism) (6000 tonnes)[91]
7.8×106kg Virginia-class nuclear submarine (submerged weight)[92]
107 1×107kg Annual production of Darjeeling tea[93]
5.2×107kg RMS Titanic when fully loaded (52,000 tonnes)[94]
9.97×107kg Heaviest train ever: Australia's BHP Iron Ore, 2001 record (99,700 tonnes)[95]
108 6.6×108kg Largest ship and largest mobile man-made object, Seawise Giant, when fully loaded (660,000 tonnes)[96]
7×108kg Heaviest (non-pyramid) building, Palace of the Parliament in Bucharest, Romania[97]
109
teragram (Tg)
4.3×109kg Amount of matter converted into energy by the Sun each second[98]
6×109kg Great Pyramid of Giza[99]
1010
6×1010kg Amount of concrete in the Three Gorges Dam, the world's largest concrete structure[100][101]
1011 ~1×1011kg The mass of a primordial black hole with an evaporation time equal to the age of the universe[102]
2×1011kg Amount of water stored in London storage reservoirs (0.2 km3)[103]
4×1011kg Total mass of the world's human population[74][104][105]
5×1011kg Total biomass of Antarctic krill, probably the most plentiful animal species on the planet[106]

1012 to 1017 kg

Factor (kg) Value Item
1012
petagram (Pg)
0.8–2.1×1012kg Global biomass of fish[107]
4×1012kg Global annual human food production[108]
4×1012kg World crude oil production in 2009 (3,843 Mt)[109]
5.5×1012kg A teaspoon (5 ml) of neutron star material (5000 million tonnes)[110]
1013 1×1013kg Mass of comet 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko[111]
4×1013kg Global annual human carbon dioxide emission[112][113]
1014 1.05×1014kg Global net primary production – the total mass of carbon fixed in organic compounds by photosynthesis each year on Earth[114]
7.2×1014kg Total carbon stored in Earth's atmosphere[115]
1015
exagram (Eg)
2.0×1015kg Total carbon stored in the terrestrial biosphere[116]
3.5×1015kg Total carbon stored in coal deposits worldwide[117]
1016 1×1016kg 951 Gaspra, the first asteroid ever to be closely approached by a spacecraft (rough estimate)[118]
1×1016kg Rough estimate of the total carbon content of all organisms on Earth.[119]
3×1016kg Rough estimate of everything produced by the human species.[120]
3.8×1016kg Total carbon stored in the oceans.[121]
1017 1.6×1017kg Prometheus, a shepherd satellite for the inner edge of Saturn's F Ring[122]

1018 to 1023 kg

Factor (kg) Value Item
1018
zettagram (Zg)
5.1×1018kg Earth's atmosphere[123]
5.6×1018kg Hyperion, a moon of Saturn[122]
1019 3×1019kg 3 Juno, one of the larger asteroids in the asteroid belt[124]
3×1019kg The rings of Saturn[125]
1020 9.4×1020kg Ceres, dwarf planet within the asteroid belt[126]
1021
yottagram (Yg)
1.4×1021kg Earth's oceans[127]
1.5×1021kg Charon, the largest moon of Pluto[128]
2.9–3.7×1021kg The asteroid belt[129]
1022 1.3×1022kg Pluto[128]
2.1×1022kg Triton, largest moon of Neptune[130]
7.3×1022kg Earth's Moon[131]
1023 1.3×1023kg Titan, largest moon of Saturn[132]
1.5×1023kg Ganymede, largest moon of Jupiter[133]
3.3×1023kg Mercury[134]
6.4×1023kg Mars[135]

1024 to 1029 kg

Factor (kg) Value Item
1024 4.9×1024kg Venus[136]
6.0×1024kg Earth[137]
1025 3×1025kg Oort cloud[138]
8.7×1025kg Uranus[139]
1026 1.0×1026kg Neptune[140]
5.7×1026kg Saturn[141]
1027 1.9×1027kg Jupiter[142]
1028 2–14×1028kg Brown dwarfs (approximate)[143]
1029 3×1029kg Barnard's Star, a nearby red dwarf[144]

1030 to 1035 kg

Factor (kg) Value Item
1030 2×1030kg The Sun[145] (one solar mass or M = 1.989×1030kg)
2.8×1030kg Chandrasekhar limit (1.4 M)[146][147]
1031 4×1031kg Betelgeuse, a red supergiant star (20 M)[148]
1032 4–7×1032kg R136a1, the most massive of known stars (230 to 345 M)[149]
6–8×1032kg Hyades star cluster (300 to 400 M)[150]
1033 1.6×1033kg Pleiades star cluster (800 M)[151]
1034
1035 ~1035kg Typical globular cluster in the Milky Way (overall range: 3×103 to 3×106 M)[152]
2×1035kg Low end of mass range for giant molecular clouds (1×105 to 1×107 M)[153][154]
7.3×1035kg Jeans mass of a giant molecular cloud at 100K and density 30 atoms per cc;[155]
possible example: Orion Molecular Cloud Complex

1036 to 1041 kg

Factor (kg) Value Item
1036 1.79×1036kg The entire Carina complex.
2.4×1036kg The Gould Belt of stars, including the Sun (1.2×106 M)[156]
7–8×1036kg The supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way, associated with the radio source Sagittarius A* (3.7±0.2×106 M)[157]
1037    
1038    
1039    
1040 4.17×1040kg NGC 4889, the largest measured supermassive black hole, weighing 21 billion solar masses (2.1×1010 M)
1041 4×1041kg Visible mass of the Milky Way galaxy[158]

1042 kg and greater

Factor (kg) Value Item
1042 1.2×1042kg Milky Way galaxy (5.8×1011 M)[159]
2–3×1042kg Local Group of galaxies, including the Milky Way (1.29±0.14×1012 M)[159]
1043    
1044    
1045 1–2×1045kg Local or Virgo Supercluster of galaxies, including the Local Group (1×1015 M)[160]
1046    
1047    
1048    
1049    
1050    
1051    
1052 4.4506×1052kg Mass of the observable universe as estimated by NASA
1052 6×1052kg Mass of the observable universe as estimated by the National Solar Observatory[161]

This series on orders of magnitude does not have a range of larger masses

Notes

  1. Criterion: A combined total of at least 250,000 Google hits on both the modern spelling (gram) and the traditional British spelling (gramme). 
  2. "Conversion from eV to kg". The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty. NIST. Retrieved 2011-10-19.
  3. "The most sensitive analysis on the neutrino mass [...] is compatible with a neutrino mass of zero. Considering its uncertainties this value corresponds to an upper limit on the electron neutrino mass of m<2.2 eV/c2 (95% Confidence Level)" The Mainz Neutrino Mass Experiment
  4. "CODATA Value: electron mass". The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty. NIST. Retrieved 2011-08-21.
  5. K. Nakamura; Particle Data Group (2011). "PDGLive Particle Summary 'Quarks (u, d, s, c, b, t, b', t', Free)'" (PDF). Particle Data Group. Retrieved 2011-08-08.
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  7. "CODATA Value: proton mass". The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty. NIST. Retrieved 2011-08-23.
  8. "CODATA Value: proton mass energy equivalent in MeV". The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty. NIST. Retrieved 2011-08-23.
  9. "CODATA Value: neutron mass". The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty. NIST. Retrieved 2011-08-23.
  10. "CODATA Value: neutron mass energy equivalent in MeV". The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty. NIST. Retrieved 2011-08-23.
  11. Amsler, C.; Doser, M.; Antonelli, M.; Asner, D.; Babu, K.; Baer, H.; Band, H.; Barnett, R.; Bergren, E.; Beringer, J.; Bernardi, G.; Bertl, W.; Bichsel, H.; Biebel, O.; Bloch, P.; Blucher, E.; Blusk, S.; Cahn, R. N.; Carena, M.; Caso, C.; Ceccucci, A.; Chakraborty, D.; Chen, M. -C.; Chivukula, R. S.; Cowan, G.; Dahl, O.; d'Ambrosio, G.; Damour, T.; De Gouvêa, A.; Degrand, T. (2008). "Review of Particle Physics⁎". Physics Letters B. 667: 1. Bibcode:2008PhLB..667....1A. doi:10.1016/j.physletb.2008.07.018.
  12. K. Nakamura; Particle Data Group (2011). "PDGLive Particle Summary 'Quarks (u, d, s, c, b, t, b', t', Free)'" (PDF). Particle Data Group. Retrieved 2011-08-08.
  13. "Ubiquitin". Channel Proteomes. Retrieved 2011-10-12.
  14. Ron Milo. "How big is the "average" protein?" (PDF). Retrieved 2011-10-13.
  15. Van Beekvelt MC; Colier WN; Wevers RA; Van Engelen BG (Feb 2001). "Performance of near-infrared spectroscopy in measuring local O2 consumption and blood flow in skeletal muscle". J Appl Physiol. 90 (2): 511–519. ISSN 8750-7587. PMID 11160049.
  16. From attograms to Daltons: Cornell NEMS device detects the mass of a single DNA molecule . Retrieved 2010-10-14
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  18. Bockstahler, L.; Kaesberg, P. (1962). "The Molecular Weight and Other Biophysical Properties of Bromegrass Mosaic Virus". Biophysical Journal. 2 (1): 1–9. Bibcode:1962BpJ.....2....1B. PMC 1366384Freely accessible. PMID 19431313. doi:10.1016/S0006-3495(62)86836-2.
  19. "Atomic mass of synaptic vesicle - Rat Rattus". BioNumbers. Retrieved 2011-10-09.
  20. "Molecular weight - Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) - BNID 105958". BioNumbers. Retrieved 2011-10-09.
  21. Rout, M. P.; Blobel, G. (1993). "Isolation of the yeast nuclear pore complex". The Journal of Cell Biology. 123 (4): 771–783. PMC 2200146Freely accessible. PMID 8227139. doi:10.1083/jcb.123.4.771.
  22. Liu, H.; Jin, L.; Koh, S. B. S.; Atanasov, I.; Schein, S.; Wu, L.; Zhou, Z. H. (2010). "Atomic Structure of Human Adenovirus by Cryo-EM Reveals Interactions Among Protein Networks" (PDF). Science. 329 (5995): 1038–1043. Bibcode:2010Sci...329.1038L. PMC 3412078Freely accessible. PMID 20798312. doi:10.1126/science.1187433.
  23. "Virus diameter of HIV-1 - HIV". BioNumbers. Retrieved 2011-11-01.
  24. Calculated : volume = 4/3 × π × (126e−9 m / 2)³ = 1.05e−21 m³. Assume density = 1 g/cm³ => mass = 1.05e−21 m³ × 1e3 kg/m³ = 1.05e−18 kg
  25. Frederick R. Blattner; Guy Plunkett III; et al. (1997). "The Complete Genome Sequence of Escherichia coli K-12". Science. 277 (5331): 1453–1462. PMID 9278503. doi:10.1126/science.277.5331.1453.
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  28. "Prochlorococcus marinus MIT 9313 - Home". Joint Genome Institute. Retrieved 2011-11-01.
  29. "Size (diameter) of most abundant cyanobacteri - Prochlorococcus - BNID 101520". BioNumbers. Retrieved 2011-11-01.
  30. 1 2 3 Mass calculated from volume assuming density of 1 g/mL
  31. "E. coli Statistics". The CyberCell Database. Retrieved 2011-09-11.
  32. "Surface area and volume of spermatozoa - Human Homo sapiens". BioNumbers. Retrieved 2011-11-01.
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  34. ""Rule of thumb" for cell mass". BioNumbers. Retrieved 2011-10-09.
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  41. Fonseca, A. E.; Westgate, M. E.; Grass, L.; Dornbos, J. (2003). "Tassel Morphology as an Indicator of Potential Pollen Production in Maize". Crop Management. doi:10.1094/CM-2003-0804-01-RS. "The dry weight of individual pollen grains has been estimated at 250 ng"
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  43. "Dietary Supplement Fact Sheet: Vitamin B12". Office of Dietary Supplements. Retrieved 2011-10-02.
  44. "Dietary Supplement Fact Sheet: Vitamin D". Office of Dietary Supplements. Retrieved 2011-10-02.
  45. Report to the CGPM, 14th meeting of the Consultative Committee for Units (CCU), April 2001, 2. (ii); General Conference on Weights and Measures, 22nd Meeting, October 2003, which stated "The kilogram is in need of a new definition because the mass of the prototype is known to vary by several parts in 108 over periods of time of the order of a month ..." (3.2 MB ZIP file, here).
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  47. "Weigh An Eyelash". National Semiconductor. Retrieved 2011-10-02.
  48. "Dietary Supplement Fact Sheet: Iodine". Office of Dietary Supplements. Retrieved 2011-10-02.
  49. "Mean dry mass (male) - Fruit fly". BioNumbers. Retrieved 2011-10-14.
  50. "Mean dry mass (female) - Fruit fly". BioNumbers. Retrieved 2011-10-14.
  51. "Frequently Asked Questions". American Mosquito Control Association. Retrieved 2011-08-23. Smaller species found around houses commonly weigh about 2.5 milligrams.
  52. Quartz has a density of 2.65. Mass = Volume × Density = (4/3 × π × (1e−3 m)³) × (2.65 × 1e3 kg/m³) = 1.1e−5 kg.
  53. Price, G. M. (1961). "Some Aspects of Amino Acid Metabolism in the Adult Housefly, Musca domestica". Biochem. J. 80 (2): 420–8. PMC 1244018Freely accessible. PMID 16748919.
  54. "Caffeine content for coffee, tea, soda and more". Mayo Clinic. Retrieved 2011-08-23.
  55. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 "Appendix B8—Factors for Units Listed Alphabetically". NIST Guide for the Use of the International System of Units (SI). NIST. Retrieved 29 October 2011.
  56. "Mass, Weight, Density or Specific Gravity of Water at Various Temperatures". SiMetric. Retrieved 13 December 2011.
  57. "FAQ Library". U.S. Bureau of Engraving and Printing. Retrieved 2011-08-21.
  58. "Raisins, seedless (NDB No. 09298)". USDA Nutrient Database. USDA. Retrieved 2011-10-19.
  59. "Denominations and technical specifications of Euro coins". Retrieved 2013-06-22. weight (g): 7.5
  60. "Coin specifications". United States Mint. Retrieved 2011-08-23.
  61. "the 1-dollar coin - Royal Canadian Mint". Royal Canadian Mint. Retrieved 2014-05-24.
  62. "Biomethodology of the Mouse". Animal Research, The University of Iowa. Retrieved 2011-10-17.
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  64. Calculated: 1e6 tons of TNT-equivalent × 4.184e9 J/ton of TNT-equivalent × 1.1e−17 kg of mass-equivalent/J = 4.7e−2 kg of mass-equivalent
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