Freedom of movement for workers in the European Union

The freedom of movement for workers is a policy chapter of the acquis communautaire of the European Union. It is part of the free movement of persons and one of the four economic freedoms: free movement of goods, services, labour and capital. Article 45 TFEU (ex 39 and 48) states that:

The right to free movement has both 'horizontal' and 'vertical' direct effect,^[2][3] such that a private citizen can invoke the right, without more, in an ordinary court, against other persons, both governmental and non-governmental.

History

The Treaty of Paris (1951)^[4] establishing the European Coal and Steel Community established a right to free movement for workers in these industries and the Treaty of Rome (1957)^[5] provided a right for the free movement of workers within the European Economic Community. The Directive 2004/38/EC on the right to move and reside freely assembles the different aspects of the right of movement in one document, replacing inter alia the directive 1968/360/EEC. It also clarifies procedural issues, and it strengthens the rights of family members of European citizens using the freedom of movement. According to the official site of the European Parliament, the explanation of the freedom of workers goes as follows:

Freedom of movement and residence for persons in the EU is the cornerstone of Union citizenship, which was established by the Treaty of Maastricht in 1992. Its practical implementation in EU law, however, has not been straightforward. It first involved the gradual phasing out, of internal borders under the Schengen agreements, initially in just a handful of Member States. Today, the provisions governing the free movement of persons are laid down in Directive 2004/38/EC on the right of EU citizens and their family members to move and reside freely within the territory of the Member States. However, the implementation of this directive continues to face many obstacles.^[6]

Definition of "worker"

The meaning of 'worker' is a matter of European Union law.^[7] "The essential feature of an employment relationship, however, is that for a certain period of time a person performs services for and under the direction of another person in return for which he receives remuneration."^[8]

• Purpose: under the European Court of Justice caselaw, the rights of free movement of workers applies regardless of the worker's purpose in taking up employment abroad,^[9] so long as the work is not solely provided as a means of rehabilitation or reintegration of the workers concerned into society.^[10]
• Time commitment: the right of free movement applies to both part-time and full-time work, so long as the work is effective and genuine^[9] and not of such small scale, irregular nature or limited duration to be purely marginal and ancillary.^[9][11]
• Remuneration: a wage is a necessary precondition for activity to constitute work, but the amount is not important. The right to free movement applies whether or not the worker required additional financial assistance from the Member State into which he moves.^[12] Remuneration may be indirect quid pro quo (e.g. board and lodging) rather than strict consideration for work.^[13]
• Direction of another: where a person is self-employed, he can avail himself of the freedom to provide services and freedom of establishment.

Extent of the right

The right to free movement applies where the legal relationship of employment is entered into in or shall take effect within the territory of the European Community.^[14][15] The precise legal scope of the right to free movement for workers has been shaped by the European Court of Justice and by directives and regulations. Underlying these developments is a tension "between the image of the Community worker as a mobile unit of production, contributing to the creation of a single market and to the economic prosperity of Europe" and the "image of the worker as a human being, exercising a personal right to live in another state and to take up employment there without discrimination, to improve the standard of living of his or her family".^[16]

Discrimination and market access

• Case 379/87 Groener v Minister for Education [1989] ECR 3967^[17]
• Cases 267 & 268/91 Keck and Mithouard [1993] ECR I-6097^[18]
• Case 18/95 F.C. Terhoeve v Inspecteur van de Belastingdienst Particulieren/Ondernemingen Buitenland [1999] ECR I-345^[19]

Public service exception

• Case 149/79 Commission v Belgium [1980] ECR 3881
• Case 152/73 Sotigiu v Deutsche Bundespost [1974] ECR 153

Directives and regulations

• Directive 68/360/EEC^[20]
• Case 48/75 Royer [1976] ECR 497
• Case 118/75Watson and Belmann [1976] ECR 1185
• Case C-292/89 Antonissen [1991] ECR I-745
• EU Regulation 1612/68^[21] repealed and replaced by Regulation 492/2011^[22]
• Case C-207/78 Ministere Public v Even and ONPTS [1979] ECR 2019
• Case C-267/83 Diatta v Land Berlin [1985] ECR 567
• Case C-370/90 R v Immigration Appeal Tribunal and Surinder Singh, ex parte Secretary of State for the Home Department [1991] ECR I-4265

Social rights

• Case 293/83 Gravier v City of Liege [1985] ECR 593
• Case C-85/96 Maria Martinez Sala v Freistaat Bayern [1998] ECR I-2691
• Case C-184/99 Rudy Grzelczyk v Centre Public d'Aide Sociale d'Ottignes-Louvain-la-Neuve (CPAS) [2001] ECR I-6193

Transitional provisions in new member states

In both the Treaty of Accession 2003 and the Treaty of Accession 2005, there is a clause about a transition period before workers from the new member states can be employed on an equal, non-discriminatory terms in the old member states. The old member states have the right to impose such transitional period for 2 years, then to decide to extend it for additional 3 years, and then, if there is serious proof that labour from new member states would be disruptive to the market in the old member states then the period can be extended for the last time for 2 more years.^[23]

According to the principle of reciprocity, new member states have the right to impose restrictions for all the countries that introduced restrictions and transitional periods to their citizens. Croatia has decided to apply this rule.^[24]

Freedom of movement in the European Economic Area

The citizens of the member states of the European Economic Area (which includes the EU) have the same right of freedom of movement in the EEA as do EU citizens do within the Union. Additionally, the European Union and Switzerland have concluded a bilateral agreement with the same meaning. The EEA member states outside the EU (Norway, Iceland and Liechtenstein) and Switzerland are treated as "old member states" in regard to the Treaty of Accession of the new EU members, so they can impose such 2+3+2 transitional periods.

Switzerland initially granted freedom of movement to EEA citizens in 2005-2011. It briefly reimposed restrictions in 2012-2013, but lifted them again in 2014. A 2014 Referendum directed the Swiss government to impose permanent quotas on residence/work permits for citizens of all EEA countries except Liechtenstein, starting from 2017 at the latest.^[25][26][27] However, on 22 December 2016, Switzerland and the EU concluded an agreement that a new Swiss law (in response to the referendum) may require Swiss employers to give priority to Swiss-based job seekers (Swiss nationals and foreigners registered in Swiss job agencies) but does not limit the free movement of EU workers to Switzerland.^[28]

Liechtenstein imposes a permanent quota for all EEA citizens (issuing 56 residence permits per year)^[29][30] and a separate quota for Swiss citizens (a further 12 residence permits per year).^[29]

Summary

Establishment of rights of nationals of each EEA member state to work in each other member state

The citizens of → can be employed in ↓ starting ↘	European Union members																												Other EEA members				The citizens of ← can be employed in ↓ starting ∠
Portugal		1986	1986	1986	1986	1986	1994	1986	1986	1986	1986	1994	1986	1986	1994	2004	2004	2006	2006	2006	2006	2006	2006	2006	2006	2009	2009	2013	1994	1994	1995	2004	Portugal
Spain	1986		1986	1986	1986	1986	1994	1986	1986	1986	1986	1994	1986	1986	1994	2004	2004	2006	2006	2006	2006	2006	2006	2006	2006	2009	2014	2015	1994	1994	1995	2004	Spain
Italy	1986	1986		1981	1958	1958	1994	1958	1958	1958	1973	1994	1973	1973	1994	2004	2004	2006	2006	2006	2006	2006	2006	2006	2006	2012	2012	2015	1994	1994	1995	2004	Italy
Greece	1986	1986	1981		1981	1981	1994	1981	1981	1981	1981	1994	1981	1981	1994	2004	2004	2006	2006	2006	2006	2006	2006	2006	2006	2009	2009	2015	1994	1994	1995	2004	Greece
France	1986	1986	1958	1981		1958	1994	1958	1958	1958	1973	1994	1973	1973	1994	2004	2004	2008	2008	2008	2008	2008	2008	2008	2008	2014	2014	2015	1994	1994	1995	2004	France
Germany	1986	1986	1958	1981	1958		1994	1958	1958	1958	1973	1994	1973	1973	1994	2004	2004	2011	2011	2011	2011	2011	2011	2011	2011	2014	2014	2015	1994	1994	1995	2004	Germany
Austria	1994	1994	1994	1994	1994	1994		1994	1994	1994	1994	1994	1994	1994	1994	2004	2004	2011	2011	2011	2011	2011	2011	2011	2011	2014	2014	(2018)	1994	1994	1995	2004	Austria
Belgium	1986	1986	1958	1981	1958	1958	1994		1958	1958	1973	1994	1973	1973	1994	2004	2004	2009	2009	2009	2009	2009	2009	2009	2009	2014	2014	2015	1994	1994	1995	2004	Belgium
Netherlands[31]	1986	1986	1958	1981	1958	1958	1994	1958		1958	1973	1994	1973	1973	1994	2004	2004	2007	2007	2007	2007	2007	2007	2007	2007	2014	2014	(2018)	1994	1994	1995	2004	Netherlands
Luxembourg	1986	1986	1958	1981	1958	1958	1994	1958	1958		1973	1994	1973	1973	1994	2004	2004	2007	2007	2007	2007	2007	2007	2007	2007	2014	2014	2015	1994	1994	1995	2004	Luxembourg
Denmark[lower-alpha 1]	1986	1986	1973	1981	1973	1973	1994	1973	1973	1973		1954	1973	1973	1954	2004	2004	2009	2009	2009	2009	2009	2009	2009	2009	2009	2009	2013	1954	1954	1995	2004	Denmark
Finland[lower-alpha 1]	1994	1994	1994	1994	1994	1994	1994	1994	1994	1994	1954		1994	1994	1954	2004	2004	2006	2006	2006	2006	2006	2006	2006	2006	2007	2007	2013	1954	1954	1995	2004	Finland
Ireland[lower-alpha 2]	1986	1986	1973	1981	1973	1973	1994	1973	1973	1973	1973	1994		1973	1994	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2012	2012	2013	1994	1994	1995	2004	Ireland
United Kingdom[lower-alpha 2]	1986	1986	1973	1981	1973	1973	1994	1973	1973	1973	1973	1994	1973		1994	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2014	2014	(2018)	1994	1994	1995	2004	United Kingdom
Sweden[lower-alpha 1]	1994	1994	1994	1994	1994	1994	1994	1994	1994	1994	1954	1954	1994	1994		2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2007	2007	2013	1954	1954	1995	2004	Sweden
Cyprus	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004		2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2007	2007	2015	2004	2004	2004	2005	Cyprus
Malta	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004		2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2014	2014	(2018)	2004	2004	2004	2005	Malta
Estonia	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004		2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2007	2007	2013	2004	2004	2004	2005	Estonia
Latvia	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004		2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2007	2007	2013	2004	2004	2004	2005	Latvia
Lithuania	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004		2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2007	2007	2013	2004	2004	2004	2005	Lithuania
Poland	2006	2006	2006	2006	2007	2007	2007	2007	2007	2007	2007	2006	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004		2004	2004	2004	2004	2007	2007	2013	2006	2006	2007	2007	Poland
Hungary	2006	2006	2006	2006	2008	2009	2009	2009	2007	2007	2009	2006	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004		2004	2004	2004	2009	2009	2013	2006	2006	2009	2009	Hungary
Czech Republic	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004		2004	2004	2007	2007	2013	2004	2004	2004	2005	Czech Republic
Slovakia	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004		2004	2007	2007	2013	2004	2004	2004	2005	Slovakia
Slovenia	2006	2006	2006	2006	2007	2007	2007	2007	2007	2007	2007	2006	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004	2004		2007	2007	(2018)	2006	2006	2007	2007	Slovenia
Bulgaria	2007	2007	2007	2007	2007	2007	2007	2007	2007	2007	2007	2007	2007	2007	2007	2007	2007	2007	2007	2007	2007	2007	2007	2007	2007		2007	2013	2007	2007	2007	2007	Bulgaria
Romania	2007	2007	2007	2007	2007	2007	2007	2007	2007	2007	2007	2007	2007	2007	2007	2007	2007	2007	2007	2007	2007	2007	2007	2007	2007	2007		2013	2007	2007	2007	2007	Romania
Croatia[32][33][34]	2013	2015	2015	2015	2015	2015	(2018)	2015	(2018)	2015	2013	2013	2013	(2018)	2013	2015	(2018)	2013	2013	2013	2013	2013	2013	2013	(2018)	2013	2013		2014	2015	(2018)	(2024)	Croatia
Norway[lower-alpha 1]	1994	1994	1994	1994	1994	1994	1994	1994	1994	1994	1954	1954	1994	1994	1954	2004	2004	2006	2006	2006	2006	2006	2006	2006	2006	2012	2012	2014		1954	1995	2004	Norway
Iceland[lower-alpha 1]	1994	1994	1994	1994	1994	1994	1994	1994	1994	1994	1954	1954	1994	1994	1954	2004	2004	2006	2006	2006	2006	2006	2006	2006	2006	2012	2012	2015	1954		1995	2004	Iceland
Liechtenstein	1995	1995	1995	1995	1995	1995	1995	1995	1995	1995	1995	1995	1995	1995	1995	2004	2004	2011	2011	2011	2011	2011	2011	2011	2011	2014	2014	(2018)	1995	1995		2005	Liechtenstein
Switzerland[lower-alpha 3]	2007	2007	2007	2007	2007	2007	2007	2007	2007	2007	2007	2007	2007	2007	2007	2007	2007	2011	2011	2011	2011	2011	2011	2011	2011	2016	2016	(2024)	2007	2007	2005		Switzerland
no restriction on freedom of movement of workers; year of initial lifting of restrictions   restricted movement of workers; earliest date for lifting of the restrictions for Croatian citizens is 1 July 2018 (1 January 2024 in case of Switzerland[35])   Liechtenstein imposes a permanent annual quota on residence permits issued, for all EEA citizens and (separately) Swiss citizens[29] Notes 1 2 3 4 5 See also the parallel, concurrent Nordic Passport Union between the Kingdom of Denmark (for Denmark and the Faroe Islands), Sweden, Norway, Iceland and Finland. 1 2 Date of applicability as member states of the EEC. See also the parallel, concurrent Common Travel Area between the United Kingdom and Islands and the Republic of Ireland (Great Britain and Islands and all of the island of Ireland). ↑ For the countries that joined the EU before 2004, plus Cyprus and Malta, restrictions on freedom of movement were initially lifted on 1 June 2007, but Switzerland decided to reimpose them from 1 June 2013 to 31 May 2014 under a safeguard clause. Similarly, for the countries that joined the EU in 2004, except Cyprus and Malta, restrictions on freedom of movement were initially lifted on 1 May 2011, but Switzerland decided to reimpose them from 1 May 2012 to 30 April 2014 under a safeguard clause. Also, according to the Protocol to the Agreement between the European Community and Switzerland regarding the participation of Bulgaria and Romania, Switzerland applied the 2+3+2 transitional period formula to these two countries starting from 1 June 2009, an may enforce some exclusions for an additional 3 years, until 31 May 2019.

See also

• Trans-Tasman Travel Arrangement
• Compact of Free Association
• European Union law
• Citizenship of the European Union
• Internal Market
• Free Movement of Citizens Directive
• Freedom of movement

References

Bibliography

• P. Craig and G. de Búrca, EU Law: Text, Cases and Materials, 3rd edition, OUP, 2003.

External links

• European Commission: EU citizenship and free movement
• Your Europe: Work Permits
• EURES - The European Job Mobility Portal
• The Free Movement of Persons in the European Union: A Legal-historical Overview