Hortative

The hortative (/ˈhɔːrtətɪv/; abbreviated HORT) is a group of semantically similar deontic modalities in some languages. Hortative modalities encourage or urge. In English, there are seven hortative modalities: the adhortative, exhortative, suprahortative, cohortative, dehortative, inhortative, and infrahortative. They differ by intensity, attitude (for or against), and—in the case of the cohortative—person.

Behavior

Hortative modalities signal the speaker's encouragement or discouragement toward the addressee's bringing about the proposition of an utterance. For this reason, hortative constructions can be used only in the first-person plural (cohortative) and second-person singular and plural (adhortative, exhortative, dehortative, and inhortative).

Etymology

The term hortative dates to 1576, from Late Latin hortatorius "encouraging, cheering", from hortatus, past participle of hortari "exhort, encourage", intensive of horiri "urge, incite, encourage".

Ambiguity

Hortative modality is often mistaken for other modalities due to semantic or lexical similarities. Hortative constructions also rarely have forms that are uniquely hortative. Let's (let us in its contracted form) is an exception to this. However, even let's in its long form let us as well as the colloquial semantic equal leave us may be used as cohortatives as well as for other functions.

Consider:

Ambiguity also arises from hortative use of modals normally utilized for expression of other modalities. Consider the modal '(have) got' which is most often used in an obligatory modality but which can also appear in hortative usage:

Further ambiguity often results from the structure of hortative formations which can sometimes have many words or appear as adverbially modified forms of other modalities:

This construction consists of might (a modal of possibility) + not (the negative marker) + want (a volitive class II modal). Forms such as this are often misconstrued as other modalities further modified (in this case volition negated and modified for possibility).

Imperative-hortative systems

Many languages have imperative-hortative systems in which modalities dealing with commands and encouragement are grouped together. This is not the case in English and results in some disagreement among linguists.

Imperatives and hortatives both involve the expression of a wish of the speaker about a future state of affairs. In this respect they are like optatives, but in contrast to optatives, they convey an appeal to the addressee(s) to help make the future state of affairs true. If the person in control of the desired state of affairs is the addressee(s), the utterance is an imperative. In any other case, it is a hortative. Consider these examples:

  1. May he live a hundred years! (optative)
  2. Sing! (imperative)
  3. Let’s sing! (hortative)

(1) illustrates an optative. It expresses a wish or hope of the speaker, but there is no appeal to the addressee to make it true. (2) and (3) also express a wish of the speaker, but in each case, there is an appeal to the addressee to help make it true, with the desired future state of affairs specified as that of someone singing. Note that the person who is supposed to sing is/are the addressee(s) in (2) thus making it a command. In (3), however, the intended singer is the addressee(s) together with the speaker thus effecting the modality of mutual encouragement that the speaker and the addressee(s) perform the action.[1]

Inclusive modalities

Adhortative

The adhortative is a hortative modality in English. The adhortative encourages or urges.

Behavior
Etymology
From ad- “to, toward” + hortari “encourage, urge”.
Examples

Exhortative

The exhortative is a hortative modality in English. The exhortative avidly encourages or strongly urges.

Behavior
Etymology
c. 1382, from L. exhortationem, noun of action from exhortari, from ex- "thoroughly" + hortari "encourage, urge" (see horatory). Verb exhort is c. 1400.
Examples

Suprahortative

The suprahortative is a hortative modality in English. The suprahortative is used for pleas of encouragement or absolute urging.

Behavior
Etymology
From supra- "over, above, maximum" + hortari "encourage, urge" (see horatory).
Examples

Dehortative

The dehortative is a hortative modality in English. The dehortative discourages or urges against.

Behavior
Etymology
From dehort (Modern English – archaic) to try to dissuade. c. 1525, from L. dehortari, from de- “off, away” + hortari “encourage, urge”.
Examples

Inhortative

The inhortative is a hortative modality in English. The inhortative avidly discourages or strongly urges against.

Behavior
Etymology
From ME enhort c. 1400 “strongly urge against”, from L. in- “opposite effect” + hortari “encourage, urge”.
Examples

Infrahortative

The infrahortative is a hortative modality in English. The infrahortative is used for pleas of discouragement or absolute urging against.

Behavior
Etymology
From infra- "below" + hortari "encourage, urge" (see horatory).
Examples

Cohortative

The cohortative is a hortative modality in English. The cohortative is used for mutual encouragement or discouragement.

Behaviour
Etymology
c. 1850, from L. cohortatus, participle of cohortare from co- “together” + hortari “encourage, urge".
Examples
The cohortative is signified by its primary modal phrase (let's) and its longer form [let us] and the semantically identical colloquial [leave us]. Constructions with let+me (first person singular) are not hortative but rather permissive.

Cohortative-hortative

References

  1. ↑ Johan van der Auwera, Nina Dobrushina, and Valentin Goussev, "Imperative-Hortative Structures," in Haspelmath, Martin (2005). The world atlas of language structures. Oxford UP. p. 294. ISBN 978-0-19-925591-7.

Sources

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