Moringa oleifera
| Moringa oleifera | |
|---|---|
 | |
Scientific classification  | |
| Kingdom: | Plantae |
| Clade: | Angiosperms |
| Clade: | Eudicots |
| Clade: | Rosids |
| Order: | Brassicales |
| Family: | Moringaceae |
| Genus: | Moringa |
| Species: | M. oleifera |
| Binomial name | |
| Moringa oleifera Lam. | |
| Synonyms[1] | |
| |
Moringa oleifera is the most widely cultivated species of the genus Moringa, which is the only genus in the family Moringaceae. English common names include: moringa,[2] drumstick tree[2] (from the appearance of the long, slender, triangular seed-pods), horseradish tree[2] (from the taste of the roots, which resembles horseradish), ben oil tree, or benzoil tree[2] (from the oil which is derived from the seeds). It is a fast-growing, drought-resistant tree, native to the southern foothills of the Himalayas in northwestern India, and widely cultivated in tropical and subtropical areas where its young seed pods and leaves are used as vegetables. It can also be used for water purification and hand washing, and is sometimes used in herbal medicine.[3]
Etymology
Moringa derives from the Tamil word, 'murungai', referring to a twisted pod found in young fruit.[4]
Description
M. oleifera is a fast-growing, deciduous tree[5] that can reach a height of 10–12 m (32–40 ft) and trunk diameter of 45 cm (1.5 ft).[6] The bark has a whitish-grey colour and is surrounded by thick cork. Young shoots have purplish or greenish-white, hairy bark. The tree has an open crown of drooping, fragile branches and the leaves build up a feathery foliage of tripinnate leaves.
The flowers are fragrant and bisexual, surrounded by five unequal, thinly veined, yellowish-white petals. The flowers are about 1.0-1.5 cm (1/2") long and 2.0 cm (3/4") broad. They grow on slender, hairy stalks in spreading or drooping flower clusters which have a length of 10–25 cm.[6]
Flowering begins within the first six months after planting. In seasonally cool regions, flowering only occurs once a year between April and June. In more constant seasonal temperatures and with constant rainfall, flowering can happen twice or even all year-round.[6]
The fruit is a hanging, three-sided brown capsule of 20–45 cm size which holds dark brown, globular seeds with a diameter around 1 cm. The seeds have three whitish papery wings and are dispersed by wind and water.[6]
In cultivation, it is often cut back annually to 1–2 m (3–6 ft) and allowed to regrow so the pods and leaves remain within arm's reach.[6]
Cultivation
The moringa tree is grown mainly in semiarid, tropical, and subtropical areas, corresponding in the United States to USDA hardiness zones 9 and 10. It tolerates a wide range of soil conditions, but prefers a neutral to slightly acidic (pH 6.3 to 7.0), well-drained sandy or loamy soil.[7] In waterlogged soil, the roots have a tendency to rot.[7] Moringa is a sun- and heat-loving plant, thus does not tolerate freezing or frost. Moringa is particularly suitable for dry regions, as it can be grown using rainwater without expensive irrigation techniques.
| Parameter | Requirement/range[7] |
|---|---|
| Climate | Grows best in tropical or subtropical |
| Altitude | 0 – 2000 m |
| Rainfall | 250 – 3000 mm
Irrigation needed for leaf production if rainfall < 800 mm |
| Soil Type | Loamy, sandy, or sandy-loam |
| Soil pH | pH 5 - 9 |
Production area
India is the largest producer of moringa,[7] with an annual production of 1.1 to 1.3 million tonnes of fruits from an area of 380 km². Among Indian states, Andhra Pradesh leads in both area and production (156.65 km²) followed by Karnataka (102.8 km²) and Tamil Nadu (74.08 km²), a pioneering state having varied genotypes from diversified geographical areas and introductions from Sri Lanka.
Moringa is grown in home gardens in West Bengal and Odisha and as living fences in southern India and Thailand, where it is commonly sold in local markets. In the Philippines and Indonesia, it is commonly grown for its leaves which are used as food. Moringa is also actively cultivated by the World Vegetable Center in Taiwan, a center for vegetable research. In Haiti, it is grown as windbreaks and to help reduce soil erosion.
More generally, moringa grows in the wild or is cultivated in Central America and the Caribbean, northern countries of South America, Africa, Southeast Asia and various countries of Oceania.
As of 2010, cultivation in Hawaii, for commercial distribution in the United States, is in its early stages.[7]
Cultivation practice
Soil preparations
In tropical cultivation, soil erosion is a major problem. Therefore, the soil treatment has to be as shallow as possible. Plowing is required only for high planting densities. In low planting densities, "it is better to dig pits and refill them with the soil. This ensures good root system penetration without causing too much land erosion. The pits must be 30 to 50 cm deep, and 20 to 40 cm wide."
Propagation
Moringa can be propagated from seed or cuttings. Direct seeding is possible because the germination rate of M. oleifera is high. Moringa seeds can be germinated year-round in well-draining soil. Cuttings of 1 m length and at least 4 cm diameter can be used for vegetative propagation.
Planting
For intensive leaf production, "the spacing of plants should be 15 x 15 cm or 20 x 10 cm, with conveniently spaced alleys (for example: every 4 m) to facilitate plantation management and harvests."[8] Weeding and disease prevention are difficult because of the high density. In a semi-intensive production, the plants are spaced 50 cm to 1 m apart. This gives good results with less maintenance.
Moringa trees can also be cultivated in alleys, as natural fences and associated with other crops. The distance between Moringa rows in an agroforestry cultivation is usually between 2 and 4 meters.
Breeding
In India, from where moringa most likely originated, the diversity of wild types is large. This gives a good basis for breeding programs. In countries where moringa has been introduced, the diversity is usually much smaller among the cultivar types. Locally well-adapted wild types, though, can be found in most regions.
Because moringa is cultivated and used in different ways, there are different breeding aims. The breeding aims for an annual or a perennial plant are obviously different. The yield stability of fruits is an important breeding aim for the commercial cultivation in India, where moringa is cultivated as an annual. On less favorable locations, perennial cultivation has big advantages. Erosion is much smaller with perennial cultivation. In Pakistan, varieties have been tested for their nutritional composition of the leaves on different locations.[9] The different breeding aims result in a different selection. India selects for a higher number of pods and dwarf or semidwarf varieties. Breeders in Tanzania, though, are selecting for higher oil content.
Yield and harvest
M. oleifera can be cultivated for its leaves, pods, and/or its kernels for oil extraction and water purification. The yields vary widely, depending on season, variety, fertilization, and irrigation regimen. Moringa yields best under warm, dry conditions with some supplemental fertilizer and irrigation.[7] Harvest is done manually with knives, sickles, and stabs with hooks attached.[7] Pollarding, coppicing and lopping or pruning are recommended to promote branching, increase production and facilitate harvesting.[10]
Fruits
When the plant is grown from cuttings, the first harvest can take place 6–8 months after planting. Often, the fruits are not produced in the first year, and the yield is generally low during the first few years. By year two, it produces around 300 pods, by year 3 around 400–500. A good tree can yield 1000 or more pods.[11] In India, a hectare can produce 31 tons of pods per year.[7] Under North Indian conditions, the fruits ripen during the summer. Sometimes, particularly in South India, flowers and fruit appear twice a year, so two harvests occur, in July to September and March to April.[12]
Leaves
Average yields of 6 tons/ha/year in fresh matter can be achieved. The harvest differs strongly between the rainy and dry seasons, with 1120 kg/ha per harvest and 690 kg/ha per harvest, respectively. The leaves and stems can be harvested from the young plants 60 days after seeding and then another seven times in the year. At every harvest, the plants are cut back to within 60 cm of the ground.[13] In some production systems, the leaves are harvested every 2 weeks.
The cultivation of M. oleifera can also be done intensively with irrigation and fertilization with suitable varieties.[8] Trials in Nicaragua with 1 million plants per hectare and 9 cuttings/year over 4 years gave an average fresh matter production of 580 metric tons/ha/year, equivalent to about 174 metric tons of fresh leaves.[8]
Oil
One estimate for yield of oil from kernels is 250 l/ha.[7] The oil can be used as a food supplement, as a base for cosmetics, and for hair and the skin.
Pests and diseases
The moringa tree is not affected by any serious diseases in its native or introduced ranges. In India, several insect pests are seen, including various caterpillars such as the bark-eating caterpillar, the hairy caterpillar or the green leaf caterpillar. The budworms Noctuidae are known to cause serious defoliation. Damaging agents can also be aphids, stem borers, and fruit flies. In some regions, termites can also cause minor damage. If termites are numerous in soils, insects management costs are not bearable.[6]
The moringa tree is a host to Leveillula taurica, a powdery mildew which causes damage in papaya crops in south India. Cultivation management should therefore be checked.
Nutrients
| Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz) | |
|---|---|
| Energy | 64 kcal (270 kJ) |
|
8.28 g | |
| Dietary fiber | 2.0 g |
|
1.40 g | |
|
9.40 g | |
| Vitamins | |
| Vitamin A equiv. |
(47%) 378 μg |
| Thiamine (B1) |
(22%) 0.257 mg |
| Riboflavin (B2) |
(55%) 0.660 mg |
| Niacin (B3) |
(15%) 2.220 mg |
| Pantothenic acid (B5) |
(3%) 0.125 mg |
| Vitamin B6 |
(92%) 1.200 mg |
| Folate (B9) |
(10%) 40 μg |
| Vitamin C |
(62%) 51.7 mg |
| Minerals | |
| Calcium |
(19%) 185 mg |
| Iron |
(31%) 4.00 mg |
| Magnesium |
(41%) 147 mg |
| Manganese |
(17%) 0.36 mg |
| Phosphorus |
(16%) 112 mg |
| Potassium |
(7%) 337 mg |
| Sodium |
(1%) 9 mg |
| Zinc |
(6%) 0.6 mg |
| Other constituents | |
| Water | 78.66 g |
| |
|
Percentages are roughly approximated using US recommendations for adults. Source: USDA Nutrient Database | |
| Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz) | |
|---|---|
| Energy | 37 kcal (150 kJ) |
|
8.53 g | |
| Dietary fiber | 3.2 g |
|
0.20 g | |
|
2.10 g | |
| Vitamins | |
| Vitamin A equiv. |
(1%) 4 μg |
| Thiamine (B1) |
(5%) 0.0530 mg |
| Riboflavin (B2) |
(6%) 0.074 mg |
| Niacin (B3) |
(4%) 0.620 mg |
| Pantothenic acid (B5) |
(16%) 0.794 mg |
| Vitamin B6 |
(9%) 0.120 mg |
| Folate (B9) |
(11%) 44 μg |
| Vitamin C |
(170%) 141.0 mg |
| Minerals | |
| Calcium |
(3%) 30 mg |
| Iron |
(3%) 0.36 mg |
| Magnesium |
(13%) 45 mg |
| Manganese |
(12%) 0.259 mg |
| Phosphorus |
(7%) 50 mg |
| Potassium |
(10%) 461 mg |
| Sodium |
(3%) 42 mg |
| Zinc |
(5%) 0.45 mg |
| Other constituents | |
| Water | 88.20 g |
| |
|
Percentages are roughly approximated using US recommendations for adults. Source: USDA Nutrient Database | |
Many parts of moringa are edible,[3] with regional uses varying widely:
- Immature seed pods, called "drumsticks"
- Leaves
- Mature seeds
- Oil pressed from seeds
- Flowers
Leaves
Nutritional content of 100 g of fresh M. oleifera leaves (about 5 cups) is shown in the table (right; USDA data), while other studies of nutrient values are available.[14]
The leaves are the most nutritious part of the plant, being a significant source of B vitamins, vitamin C, provitamin A as beta-carotene, vitamin K, manganese, and protein, among other essential nutrients.[3][15][16] When compared with common foods particularly high in certain nutrients per 100 g fresh weight, cooked moringa leaves are considerable sources of these same nutrients. Some of the calcium in moringa leaves is bound as crystals of calcium oxalate[17] though at levels 1/25th to 1/45th of that found in spinach, which is a negligible amount.
The leaves are cooked and used like spinach and are commonly dried and crushed into a powder used in soups and sauces.
Drumsticks
The immature seed pods, called "drumsticks", are commonly consumed in South Asia. They are prepared by parboiling, and cooked in a curry until soft.[18] The seed pods/fruits, even when cooked by boiling, remain particularly high in vitamin C[19] (which may be degraded variably by cooking) and are also a good source of dietary fiber, potassium, magnesium, and manganese.[19]
Seeds
The seeds, sometimes removed from more mature pods and eaten like peas or roasted like nuts, contain high levels of vitamin C and moderate amounts of B vitamins and dietary minerals.
Seed oil
Mature seeds yield 38–40% edible oil called ben oil from its high concentration of behenic acid. The refined oil is clear and odorless, and resists rancidity. The seed cake remaining after oil extraction may be used as a fertilizer or as a flocculent to purify water.[20] Moringa seed oil also has potential for use as a biofuel.[21]
Roots
The roots are shredded and used as a condiment with sharp flavor qualities deriving from significant content of polyphenols.[22]
Malnutrition relief
Moringa trees have been used to combat malnutrition, especially among infants and nursing mothers.[3][23] Since moringa thrives in arid and semiarid environments, it may provide a versatile, nutritious food source throughout the year.[24] Moringa leaves have been proposed as an iron-rich food source (31% Daily Value per 100 g consumed, table) to combat iron deficiency.[25] However, further study is needed to test practical applications of using this dietary source and its iron bioavailability.
Culinary uses
Moringa has numerous applications in cooking throughout its regional distribution. The fruits or seed pods, known as drumsticks, are a culinary vegetable commonly used in soups and curries. The leaves are also commonly eaten with many culinary uses, and the flowers are featured in some recipes as well.
The long drumsticks are often cut into shorter lengths and stewed in curries and soups. Because the outer skin is tough and fibrous, drumsticks are often chewed to extract the juices and nutrients, with the remaining fibrous material discarded. Others describe a slightly different method of sucking out the flesh and tender seeds and discarding the tube of skin.[26] Traditional dishes which commonly include drumsticks prepared this way include South Indian sambar where it is stewed with lentils, and the Thai dish kaeng som which is a sour curry with drumsticks and fish.
The leaves can be used in many ways, perhaps most commonly added to clear broth-based soups, such as the Filipino dishes tinola and utan. Tender moringa leaves, finely chopped, are used as garnish for vegetable dishes and salads, such as the Kerala dish thoran. It is also used in place of or along with coriander.
In some regions of India, the flowers are mixed with gram flour and spices, then deep fried into pakoras to be served as snacks or added to curries.
Traditional medicine and research
The bark, sap, roots, leaves, seeds and flowers are used in traditional medicine.[3][27] Research has examined how it might affect blood lipid profiles, although it is not effective at diagnosing, treating, or preventing any human diseases.[28][29]
Extracts from leaves contain low contents of polyphenols which are under basic research for their potential properties.[3][30][31] Despite considerable preliminary research on the biological properties of moringa components, there are few high-quality studies on humans to justify its use to treat human diseases.[3]
Potential adverse effects
Various adverse effects may occur from consuming moringa bark, roots, or flowers and their extracts, as these components contain chemicals that appear to be toxic when eaten. Moringa leaves have been used safely in doses up to 6 grams (0.21 oz) daily for up to 3 weeks.[28]
Other uses
In developing countries, moringa has the potential to improve nutrition, boost food security, foster rural development, and support sustainable landcare.[3][32] It may be used as forage for livestock, a micronutrient liquid, a natural anthelmintic, and possible adjuvant.[33][34]
Moringa oleifera leaf powder was as effective as soap for hand washing when wetted in advance to enable anti-septic and detergent properties from phytochemicals in the leaves.[35]
Water purification
Moringa seed cake, obtained as a byproduct of pressing seeds to obtain oil, is used to filter water using flocculation to produce potable water for animal or human consumption.[36][37] Moringa seeds contain dimeric cationic proteins[38] which absorb and neutralize colloidal charges in turbid water, causing the colloidal particles to clump together, making the suspended particles easier to remove as sludge by either settling or filtration. Moringa seed cake removes most impurities from water. This use is of particular interest for being nontoxic and sustainable compared to other materials in moringa-growing regions where drinking water is affected by pollutants.[37]
Gallery
_at_Jayanti%2C_Duars%2C_West_Bengal_W_IMG_5249.jpg)
A fully grown moringa tree with flowers and leaves in West Bengal
Dried moringa with pods and seeds on the ground in Hawaii
References
- ↑ Olson, M. E. (2010). Flora of North America Committee, ed. eFlora summary: Moringaceae: Drumstick Family. Flora of North America, North of Mexico. 7. New York and Oxford. pp. 167–169.
- 1 2 3 4 "USDA GRIN Taxonomy".
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Leone A, Spada A, Battezzati A, Schiraldi A, Aristil J, Bertoli S (2015). "Cultivation, Genetic, Ethnopharmacology, Phytochemistry and Pharmacology of Moringa oleifera Leaves: An Overview". Int J Mol Sci. 16 (6): 12791–835. PMC 4490473
. PMID 26057747. doi:10.3390/ijms160612791. - ↑ Olson, Mark E (2010). Moringaceae Martinov; Drumstick Tree Family; In: Flora of North America, North of Mexico, Volume 7: Magnoliophyta: Dilleniidae, Part 2. Oxford University Press. p. 168. ISBN 0195318226.
- ↑
- 1 2 3 4 5 6
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Ted Radovich (2011). C.R Elevitch, ed. "Farm and Forestry Production and Marketing Profile for Moringa (revised February 2011)" (PDF). In: Specialty Crops for Pacific Island Agroforestry. Holualoa, Hawai'i: Permanent Agriculture Resources.
- 1 2 3 Amaglo, N. (2006). "How to Produce Moringa Leaves Efficiently?" (PDF). Retrieved 2013-11-19.
- ↑ Iqbal, Shahid; Bhanger, M.I. (2006). "Effect of season and production location on antioxidant activity of Moringa oleifera leaves grown in Pakistan". Journal of Food Composition and Analysis. 19 (6–7): 544–551. doi:10.1016/j.jfca.2005.05.001.
- ↑ Grubben, G. Grubben, G. J. H., ed. Vegetables. 2 (Plant resources of tropical Africa ed.). p. 394. ISBN 9057821478. Retrieved 2015-02-02.
- ↑ Booth, F.E.M.; Wickens, G.E., 1988: Non-timber Uses of Selected Arid Zone Trees and Shrubs in Africa, p.98, FAO, Rome "".Retrieved 20-11-2013.
- ↑ Ramachandran, C.; Peter, K. V.; Gopalakrishnan, P. K. (1980). "Drumstick (Moringa oleifera): A multipurpose Indian vegetable". Economic Botany. 34 (3): 276–283. doi:10.1007/BF02858648.
- ↑ Sogbo, K. A. (2006). "Moringa Leaf Farming Systems: Conditions for Profitability and Sustainability" (PDF). Retrieved 2013-11-19.
- ↑ C. Gopalan; B. V. Rama Sastri; S. C. Balasubramanian (1989). Nutritive Value of Indian Foods. National Institute of Nutrition, Indian Council of Medical Research.
- ↑ "Horseradish-tree, leafy tips, cooked, boiled, drained, without salt". Nutritiondata.com. Condé Nast. 2012. Retrieved 6 May 2013.
- ↑ K.V. Peter (2008). Underutilized and Underexploited Horticultural Crops:, Volume 4. New India Publishing. p. 112. ISBN 81-89422-90-1.
- ↑ Olson, M. E.; Carlquist, S. (2001). "Stem and root anatomical correlations with life form diversity, ecology, and systematics in Moringa (Moringaceae)". Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society. 135 (4): 315–348. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8339.2001.tb00786.x.
- ↑ Elizabeth Schneider (2001). Vegetables from Amaranth to Zucchini: The Essential Reference. HarperCollins. p. 318. ISBN 0-688-15260-0.
- 1 2 "Horseradish-tree, pods, cooked, boiled, drained, without salt.". Nutritiondata.com. Condé Nast. 2012. Retrieved 6 May 2013.
- ↑ Lea, Michael (2010). "Bioremediation of Turbid Surface Water Using Seed Extract from Moringa oleifera Lam. (Drumstick) Tree". Current Protocols in Microbiology. ISBN 0471729256. doi:10.1002/9780471729259.mc01g02s16.
- ↑ Rashid, Umer; Anwar, Farooq; Moser, Bryan R.; Knothe, Gerhard (2008). "Moringa oleifera oil: A possible source of biodiesel". Bioresource Technology. 99 (17): 8175–9. PMID 18474424. doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2008.03.066.
- ↑ Atawodi, S. E.; Atawodi, J. C.; Idakwo, G. A.; Pfundstein, B; Haubner, R; Wurtele, G; Bartsch, H; Owen, R. W. (2010). "Evaluation of the polyphenol content and antioxidant properties of methanol extracts of the leaves, stem, and root barks of Moringa oleifera Lam". Journal of Medicinal Food. 13 (3): 710–6. PMID 20521992. doi:10.1089/jmf.2009.0057.
- ↑ Kumar, H. D. (2004-01-01). Cooper, Edwin L.; Yamaguchi, Nobuo, eds. Management of Nutritional and Health Needs of Malnourished and Vegetarian People in India. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology. Springer US. pp. 311–321. ISBN 978-1-4419-3441-3. doi:10.1007/978-1-4757-4820-8_23.
- ↑ "Traditional Crop of the Month". FAO. Retrieved 2015-04-25.
- ↑ Oduro I, Ellis WO, Owusu D (2008). "Nutritional potential of two leafy vegetables: Moringa oleifera and Ipomoea batatas leaves" (PDF). Scientific Research and Essay. 3 (2).
- ↑ "My Mom Cooked Moringa Before It Was A Superfood" (Podcast). NPR. September 21, 2015. Event occurs at 5:02 AM ET. Retrieved 2017-07-08.
- ↑ NPCS Board (2012). Handbook on Agro Based Industries (2nd Revised Edition). Niir Project Consultancy Services. p. 66. ISBN 9381039127.
- 1 2 "Moringa oleifera". Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center. Retrieved 2014-02-27.
- ↑ Sandoval, Mark Anthony S.; Jimeno, Cecilia A. (2013). "Effect of Malunggay (Moringa oleifera) Capsules on Lipid and Glucose Levels" (PDF). Acta Medica Philippina. 47 (3): 22–27.
- ↑ Madukwe, E.U. (June 2013). "Nutrient Composition and Sensory Evaluation of Dry Moringa Oleifera Aqueous Extract" (PDF). International Journal of Basic & Applied Sciences IJBAS-IJENS.
- ↑ Sreelatha, S.; Padma, P. R. (2009-11-11). "Antioxidant Activity and Total Phenolic Content of Moringa oleifera Leaves in Two Stages of Maturity". Plant Foods for Human Nutrition. 64 (4): 303–311. ISSN 0921-9668. doi:10.1007/s11130-009-0141-0.
- ↑ National Research Council (2006-10-27). "Moringa". Lost Crops of Africa: Volume II: Vegetables. Lost Crops of Africa. 2. National Academies Press. ISBN 978-0-309-10333-6. Retrieved 2008-07-15.
- ↑ Makkar HP, Francis G, Becker K; Francis; Becker (2007). "Bioactivity of phytochemicals in some lesser-known plants and their effects and potential applications in livestock and aquaculture production systems". Animal. 1 (9): 1371–91. PMID 22444893. doi:10.1017/S1751731107000298.
- ↑ Mahajan SG, Mali RG, Mehta AA; Mali; Mehta (2007). "Protective effect of ethanolic extract of seeds of Moringa oleifera Lam. against inflammation associated with development of arthritis in rats". J Immunotoxicol. 4 (1): 39–47. PMID 18958711. doi:10.1080/15476910601115184.
- ↑ Torondel, B.; Opare, D.; Brandberg, B.; Cobb, E.; Cairncross, S. (2014). "Efficacy of Moringa oleifera leaf powder as a hand- washing product: A crossover controlled study among healthy volunteers". BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine. 14: 57. doi:10.1186/1472-6882-14-57.
- ↑ Ndabigengesere, Anselme; Narasiah, K.Subba; Talbot, Brian G. (February 1995). "Active agents and mechanism of coagulation of turbid waters using Moringa oleifera". Water Research. 29 (2): 703–710. doi:10.1016/0043-1354(94)00161-Y.
- 1 2 Hellsing, Maja S.; Kwaambwa, Habauka M.; Nermark, Fiona M.; Nkoane, Bonang B.M.; Jackson, Andrew J.; Wasbrough, Matthew J.; Berts, Ida; Porcar, Lionel; Rennie, Adrian R. (2013). "Structure of flocs of latex particles formed by addition of protein from Moringa seeds". Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects. 460: 460–467. doi:10.1016/j.colsurfa.2013.11.038.
- ↑ Ghebremichael, K. A.; Gunaratna, K. R.; Henriksson, H; Brumer, H; Dalhammar, G (2005). "A simple purification and activity assay of the coagulant protein from Moringa oleifera seed". Water Res. 39 (11): 2338–44. PMID 15921719. doi:10.1016/j.watres.2005.04.012.
External links
-
Data related to Moringa oleifera at Wikispecies - Dressler, S.; Schmidt, M. & Zizka, G. (2014). "Moringa oleifera". African plants – a Photo Guide. Frankfurt/Main: Forschungsinstitut Senckenberg.
 |
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Moringa oleifera. |