Dhammakaya Movement

Somdet Chuang Varapuñño from Wat Paknam Bhasicharoen [left] and Luang Por Dattajivo from Wat Phra Dhammakaya [right].

The Dhammakaya Movement or Dhammakaya tradition is a Thai Buddhist tradition which was started by Luang Pu Sodh Candasaro in the early 20th century.[1] It is connected to several temples which refer back to Wat Paknam Bhasicharoen in Bangkok for their ancestry. The movement practices Dhammakaya meditation (Vijja Dhammakaya), a form of meditation which scholars have linked to the Yogavacara tradition. Central to the movement is the idea that Dhammakaya meditation was the method through which the Buddha became enlightened, a method which was forgotten but has been revived by Luang Pu Sodh Candasaro.

History

Scholars have theorized that The Dhammakaya movement has its roots in the Yogavacara tradition (also known as tantric Theravada).[2][3][4] The movement was started by Luang Pu Sodh Candasaro in the early twentieth century.[1] The movement is connected to several temples which refer back to Wat Paknam Bhasicharoen in Bangkok for their ancestry. Luang Por Dhammajayo and Luang Por Dattajivo, the current abbot and vice-abbot of Wat Phra Dhammakaya, were students of maechi (nun) Chandra Khonnokyoong. She in turn was a student of Luang Pu Sodh Candasaro, the meditation master who developed Dhammakaya meditation and the abbot of Wat Paknam. Other temples, such as Wat Luang Phor Sodh Dhammakayaram, also have their roots in Wat Paknam.[5] After discovering the Dhammakaya meditation approach, Luang Pu Sodh first taught it to others at Wat Bangpla, Bang Len District, Nakhon Pathom.[6] When Luang Pu Sodh was given his first position as abbot at Wat Paknam, Dhammakaya meditation has been associated with this temple ever since. Since 1959, Dhammakaya meditation has been taught by Luang Pu Sodh's students at Wat Paknam Bhasicharoen, Wat Phra Dhammakaya, Wat Luang Por Sodh Dhammakayaram, and at Wat Rajorasaram, as well as the respective branches of these temples. Apart from these temples, there are also several other centers that practice in the tradition of Luang Pu Sodh.[7]

Notable Temples

Newell has pointed out that the term Dhammakaya Movement is problematic, because it has been used "without distinguishing between the various temples practising dhammakaya meditation and Wat Dhammakaya [sic] itself. (...) There are considerable differences in style, practice and structure of all the temples". She prefers to use the term Dhammakaya temples.[8] She is quoted on this by McDaniel, but he nevertheless uses Dhammakaya Movement.[9] Crosby, on the other hand, uses Dhammakaya network.[10] Thus, scholars have often pointed out the differences and even some dissension among the temples,[11][2][12] but it has also been noted that the relation with Somdet Chuang Varapuñño and Wat Phra Dhammakaya has been good.[13] Somdet Chuang has also taken part in establishing Wat Luang Phor Sodh Dhammakayaram.[14] Furthermore, in an interview with a monk from Wat Rajorosarama in 2001, it was stated abbot Luang Por Thongdi and abbot of Wat Phra Dhammakaya, Luang Por Dhammajayo, were close friends.[15]

Wat Paknam Bhasicharoen

Wat Paknam Bhasicharoen (Thai: วัดปากน้ำภาษีเจริญ) is a royal wat located in Phasi Charoen district, Bangkok, at the Chao Phraya River.[16] Wat Paknam Bhasicharoen is the temple where Luang Pu Sodh Candasaro used to be the abbot, and still is known for its meditation lessons.[1][17] The temple underwent a major change during the period that Luang Pu Sodh Candasaro became the temple's abbot, from a temple with only thirteen monks that was abandoned, to a prosperous center of education and meditation practice. In 2008, it housed two hundred to four hundred monks, eighty to ninety samanera (young novices) and two hundred to three hundred maechis (nuns). Currently, the temple's abbot is Somdet Chuang Varapuñño, who was Thailand's acting Supreme Patriarch (Sangharaja) from 2013 to 2017.[2] In 2015, he was proposed by the Supreme Sangha Council as the new Supreme Patriarch, but the appointment was stalled by the junta, which cited objections by several influential former leaders of the 2014 coup d'état.[18] The appointment was eventually withdrawn and a monk from the Dhammayuttika Nikaya appointed instead after the junta changed the law to allow the King to appoint the Supreme Patriarch directly, with the Prime Minister countersigning.[19][20]

Wat Phra Dhammakaya

Wat Phra Dhammakaya is located in Pathum Thani, north of Bangkok. It was founded by Maechi Chandra Khonnokyoong and Luang Por Dhammajayo. It is the temple that is most well-known in the Dhammakaya Movement because of its huge size and following, its numerous activities and also its controversies. The temple is popular among the Bangkok middle class, and organizes many training programs. The temple emphasizes merit-making through meditation, giving and volunteering.[21] As of 2007, the temple's worldwide following was estimated at one million practitioners.[22] The community living at Wat Phra Dhammakaya numbered more than a thousand monks and novices, and hundreds of full-time lay employees.[23] The temple emphasizes the revival of traditional Buddhist values, but does so through modern methods and technology.[24][25] The temple emphasizes personal transformation, expressed through its slogan "World Peace through Inner Peace".[26] The temple offers English language retreats and ordinations.[27][28][29]

Initially, the temple was founded as a meditation center, after Maechi Chandra and the just ordained monk Luang Por Dhammajayo could no longer accommodate the rising number of participants in their activities at Wat Paknam Bhasicharoen. The center became an official temple in 1977.[30][31] The temple grew exponentially during the 1980s, when the temple's training programs became widely known among the urban middle class.[30][32] Wat Phra Dhammakaya expanded its area and the building of a huge stupa (pagoda) was started.[33] During the period of the Asian economical crisis, however, the temple became subject to criticism as Luang Por Dhammajayo was charged with embezzlement and removed from his office as abbot. In 2006, he was cleared of these charges and he was restored as abbot.[34] The temple grew further and became known for its activities in education, promotion of ethics, and scholarship projects.[35][36][37] Under the 2014 military junta, however, the abbot and the temple were put under scrutiny again and Luang Por Dhammajayo was accused of receiving stolen money through the donations of a supporter.[38]

Wat Phra Dhammakaya emphasizes a culture of making merit through doing good deeds and meditation, as well as an ethical outlook on life.[39][40][41] The temple promotes a community of kalyanamittas ('good friends') to accomplish such a culture.[42][43] Although the temple emphasizes traditional Buddhist values, modern methods of propagation are used, such as a satellite television station and a distance-learning university, as well as modern management methods.[44][45][46] In its large temple complex, the temple houses several monuments and memorials, and in its construction designs traditional Buddhist concepts are given modern forms, as the temple envisions itself as a global spiritual center.[47][48][26]

Wat Rajorasaram

Luang Por Thongdi Suratejo from Wat Rajorasarama.

Wat Rajorasaram (or for short, Wat Rajaoros; literally 'the temple of the King's son'), Bang Khun Thian District, Bangkok, originates from the Ayutthaya period. Originally called Wat Chomthong, it was a small temple mostly visited by local orchard workers. It later became a royal temple figured in the history of the Chakri dynasty when Prince Rama III resided and held a ceremony there to prepare for an attack during the Burmese–Siamese Wars. After having spent a while at the temple preparing, the attack did not happen. Nevertheless, Rama III repaid his gratitude to the temple by renovating it from 1817 to 1831,[49][50][51] work which he supervised himself.[52] During the renovations, texts about Thai medicine and massage were carved in the temple's walls. This was done in Wat Pho as well, making for a total of thousand inscriptions, meant as a storehouse of ancient knowledge which Rama III feared might be lost during the wars.[53][54] When the renovations were finished, he dedicated the temple to his father Rama II, who renamed the temple "Wat Rajorasaram".[55] After Rama III's death, part of his ashes were kept at the temple.[56] The temple is often described as "the temple of King Rama III", citing his stay there during the Burmese–Siamese Wars, and the subsequent construction he started there.[55] However, in reality, Rama III grew up in the area of Wat Chomthong, not in the palace, and was therefore familiar with the temple from his childhood onward.[56]

Following the preferences of Rama III, the temple has an architecture that shows much Chinese influence, which was becoming a fashion at the time.[57][50][58] Rama III had an interest in Chinese culture due to his successful trade contacts with the Chinese.[55] The traditional texts about Thai medicine that have been carved in the temple's walls were protected by copyright by the Ministry of Public Health in 2009.[59][60] There is a monastic school at the temple, as well as a secular state school which is supported by the temple.[61] The latter is one of the last state schools in Thailand still located in a Buddhist temple.[62][63] In the 1950s, the temple was nearly abandoned and derelict. After the appointment of Luang Por Thongdi Suratejo as abbot in 1982, and with financial help from the government, the temple was greatly renovated.[61]

Although Luang Por Thongdi had been ordained in a temple in Kamphaeng Phet Province, he spent many years at Wat Paknam, completing his Pali studies there to the highest level. He held several positions in the Thai Sangha before being appointed as a member of the Supreme Sangha Council in 1992. He is well-known in Thailand for his encyclopedias and books, of which he has published over twenty, under his honorary names. Less well-known is that he contributed to several Tipitaka scripture sets in the original Pali and in Thai translation.[64][61] In an interview with newspaper The Nation in 1997, he expressed concern regarding the problem of lack of education among monks in Thailand, complaining that "people who are considered bright and smart do not want to become monks".[65]

In 2001, Luang Por Thongdi made headlines when he was suddenly removed from the Sangha Council, because the Supreme Patriarch felt he "acted against the decisions of the council". During that period, Prime Minister Thaksin Shinawatra had announced several reforms of the Monastic Act, aiming for a Sangha that is more independent of the government. Luang Por Thongdi expressed his disagreement with the proposed reforms by publishing a book about them, of which 45,000 copies were distributed. He stated the Sangha Council was rash in its decisions, and doubted whether the monastic establishment was ready to be self-reliant. A network ran by scholars and devotees stated the book was inappropriate and they pleaded with the Sangha Council to act.[66][15] As soon as Luang Por Thongdi was removed from the office, practitioners of Wat Phra Dhammakaya and students of Wat Rajaoros' school protested against the decision, but Luang Por Thongdi asked them to stop as to not express contempt of the Supreme Patriarch.[note 1] Meanwhile, PM Thaksin admitted he was "shocked" by the Supreme Patriarch's decision. Whereas the network of critics stated Luang por Thongdi "always had opposing views" and caused division, the head of the Religious Affairs Department responded "monks should have the right to air their views".[15][67][68] An officer of the Ministry of University Affairs stated Luang Por Thongdi was actually open-minded to modern reform, and he wondered whether there were other, undisclosed reasons for the removal. When Luang Por Thongdi himself was asked how he felt about the decision, he replied "We are born in this world without anything [without position or possessions]. Having been a member of the Sangha Council, I have served Buddhism, which is the highest good in life. (...) The right thing to do [now] is to accept the decision made [by the Supreme Patriarch]".[15] Luang Por Thongdi also clarified that he was not opposed to reform and more independence from the government, but the Sangha should still have an important role in moral education, which he felt was overlooked in the reforms.[69][70] Despite the removal from the Sangha Council, Luang Por Thongdi received a new honorary name in 2014, as "Phra Maha Pothiwongsacharn".[71]

Apart from traditional yearly ceremonies, there is weekly Dhammakaya meditation at Wat Rajaoros, there are training programs for schools, merit release ceremonies, regional training programs for teaching monks, and a regular merit transfer ceremony for Rama III.[72][73][61]

Wat Luang Phor Sodh Dhammakayaram

Somdet Chuang Varapuñño from Wat Paknam Bhasicharoen presiding over a ceremony.

In 1982, Luang Por Sermchai Jayamangalo and Phra Khru Bart Yanathiro established the Buddhabhavana Vijja Dhammakaya Institute,[74][75] partly in response to Wat Phra Dhammakaya.[76] In 1991, the institute was changed into a temple.[14] It is located in Ratchaburi Province, west of Bangkok, and is currently led by Luang Por Sermchai. Luang Por Sermchai was formerly a lay meditation teacher at Wat Paknam, as well as a researcher and lecturer.[77][78] Many of the temple's activities are done in cooperation with Wat Saket.[79] Luang Por Sermchai teaches regularly to government departments, companies, and other temples.[80] In 2004, Luang Por Sermchai made headlines when he criticized the government's policy on legalizing gambling during a preaching on a radio program. After some members of the government responded displeased, a screening process for preaching on the radio was established.[81][82] Luang Por Sermchai defended the radio broadcast, stating that his criticism referred to society in general, not just the government.[80]

In 2006, there were seventy monks and thirty-three novices at the temple.[77] Phra Khru Bart was a western monk who organized exchange student programs and gave meditation instruction and retreats in English language. English instruction is still available, though Phra Khru Bart has now passed away.[29][78] In Thai language, the temple offers retreats, monastic ordination programs, and study retreats for families.[83] The temple also runs its own school with Pali and Dhamma studies.[14]

Apart from an Uposatha hall, the temple also has a memorial hall in honor of Luang Pu Sodh. In 2006, the temple started building a stupa (mound-like shaped monument). The stupa will be four storeys high, and will contain meditation rooms, Buddha images, and relics.[14][84] As of 2014, the stupa was expected to be finished in two years.[85]

Features

Revivalist school

The stupa at Wat Paknam Bhasicharoen.

Despite having been included in the controversial,[86] global Fundamentalism Project studies,[87] many scholars do not regard the movement as a fundamentalistic movement, but rather as a movement with revivalist characteristics. Whether the movement is a new movement is a matter of debate; Wat Phra Dhammakaya, for one, has specifically stated not to want to start a new fraternity (nikaya).[88][89] Central to the movement is the idea that Dhammakaya meditation was the method through which the Buddha became enlightened, a method which was forgotten but has been revived by Luang Pu Sodh Candasaro. This method is called Vijja Dhammakaya.[90][91][92]

There are multiple temples in the tradition which have expressed opposition to traditional magical rituals, fortune telling and giving lottery numbers.[93][94][95] According to the biography by Wat Phra Dhammakaya, Luang Pu Sodh held similar attitudes. He did, however, often heal people through meditation, and Luang Pu Sodh's amulets were—and are still—widely venerated for their powers.[96] The movement does not oppose miracles that are connected with the practice of meditation.[97]

Tantric Theravada

Since the 2000s, new evidence has been brought forward though that Luang Pu Sodh's approach might originate from Yogavacara tradition (also known as tantric Theravada).[2][98][99] The Dhammakaya meditation method managed to survive modernization pressures to reform during the twentieth century C.E. and scholars have theorized that there is an ancestry to be found in common with Yogavacara.[98][100][101] However, Luang Pu Sodh did prohibit magical practices at Wat Paknam, practices which are associated with the Yogavacara tradition.[96] In one biography, he is quoted as saying that magic was not part of the core of the Buddha's teaching.[102] As of 2007, there was not yet enough evidence to draw any conclusions about the relation between Yogavacara and Dhammakaya.[103]

Dhammakaya meditation and True Self

Meditation is at the most important practice of all major temples in the Dhammakaya Movement. It is the concept of Dhammakaya what makes the movement stand out from other forms of Theravada Buddhism,[104][105] as the movement believes that all meditation methods lead to the attainment of the Dhammakaya, and this is the only way to Nirvana.[106] According to the Dhammakaya Movement, the Buddha made the discovery that nirvana is nothing less than the true Self. The movement calls this true self the Dhammakaya, the spiritual essence.[107][108] The Movement believes that this essence of the Buddha and Nirvana exist as a literal reality within each individual.[109][110][111] The not-self teaching is considered the method to let go what is not the self, to attain the true self.[112]

According to Paul Williams, in some respects the teachings of the Dhammakaya Movement resemble the Buddha-nature and Trikaya doctrines of Mahayana Buddhism. He sees the Dhammakaya Movement as having developed independently of the Mahayana tathagatagarbha tradition, but as achieving very similar results in their understanding of Buddhism.[113] According to Williams,

[Dhammakaya] meditations involve the realization, when the mind reaches its purest state, of an unconditioned "Dhamma Body" (dhammakaya) in the form of a luminous, radiant and clear Buddha figure free of all defilements and situated within the body of the practitioner. Nirvana is the true Self, and this is also the dhammakaya." [114]

The bulk of Thai Theravada Buddhism rejects this teaching and insists upon non-self as a universal fact. In particular, the Thai scholar-monk Luang Por Payutto has written much to oppose the views of the Dhammakaya Movement.[115] As against this, Luang Por Sermchai argues that it tends to be scholars who hold the view of absolute non-self, rather than Buddhist meditation practitioners. Also, only the compounded and conditioned is not-self—not nirvana. Williams summarises Luang Por Sermchai's views (here referred to by his former honorific name Phra Rajyanvisith), and adds his own comment at the end:

[Scholars] incline towards a not-Self perspective. But only scholars hold that view. By way of contrast, Phra Rajyanvisith mentions in particular the realizations of several distinguished forest hermit monks. Moreover, he argues, impermanence, suffering and not-Self go together. Anything which is not-Self is also impermanent and suffering. But, it is argued, nirvana is not suffering, nor is it impermanent. It is not possible to have something which is permanent, not suffering (i.e. is happiness) and yet for it still to be not-Self. Hence it is not not-Self either. It is thus (true, or transcendental) Self. [...] These ways of reading Buddhism in terms of a true Self certainly seem to have been congenial in the East Asian environment, and hence flourished in that context where for complex reasons Mahayana too found a ready home."[116]

The Dhammakaya Movement has responded in different ways to the debate of self and not-self. Apart from Luang Por Sermchai, Wat Phra Dhammakaya's assistant-abbot Luang phi Thanavuddho wrote a book about the topic in response to critics.[21][117] Nevertheless, the movement generally seems not much interested in the discussion. Followers are more concerned how Dhammakaya meditation improves their mind.[118] Apart from the true self, the Dhammakaya Movement often uses other positive terms to describe Nirvana as well. Scott notes that the Dhammakaya Movement often explains Nirvana as being the supreme happiness, and argues that this may explain why the practice of Dhammakaya meditation is so popular.[119]

Methods of propagation

Luang Pu Sodh introduced Dhammakaya meditation, which is the core of the Dhammakaya movement. But besides the technique of meditation itself, the methods through which Luang Pu Sodh taught have also been passed on to the main temples in the movement. The movement has an active style of propagation.[120] Teaching meditation in a group, teaching meditation during ceremonies, teaching meditation simultaneously to monastics and lay people, and teaching one main meditation method to all are features which can be found throughout the movement.[121][122][123]

Newell speculates that Luang Pu Sodh was the person who set up the mae chi community at Wat Paknam,[124] which is currently one of the largest mae chi communities in Thailand.[125] Although Luang Pu Sodh encouraged women to become mae chis, mae chis did have to spend quite some time doing domestic activities, more so than monks. This orientation echoes in Wat Phra Dhammakaya's approach to female spirituality, praising Mae Chi Chandra as an example of a meditation master, but at the same time not supporting the Bhikkhuni ordination movement.[124]

Besides Wat Paknam's attitudes with regard to female spirituality, Wat Paknam's international orientation also became part of its heritage.[126] The temple ordained several monks coming from the United Kingdom,[127] and maintained relations with Japanese Buddhists.[128] Currently, Wat Paknam has branch centers in the United States, Japan and New Zealand.[129] This international orientation was also continued through the work of Wat Phra Dhammakaya, which, as of 2010, had thirty to fifty international centers,[130][131] and through the work of Wat Luang Phor Sodh Dhammakayaram, which has two branch centers in Malaysia.[132] Of all Thai Buddhist temples and movements, the Dhammakaya movement has an international presence that is one of the strongest.[133]

A characteristic that is also found both in Wat Paknam and other temples in Luang Pu Sodh's tradition, is its emphasis on lifelong ordination.[134]

The first generation of students

Maechi Thongsuk Samdaengpan

Maechi Chandra Konnokyoong.

Maechi Thongsuk (1900–1963) was a nun well-known for her meditation teaching. She was born on 1 August 1900 at Baan Saphan Lueang, Bangrak District, Bangkok. She was the third born to her father Rom and mother Wan. She was separated from her parents at an early age, being adopted by her uncle and aunt instead. She had no formal education and was illiterate. She married a surgeon at Chulalongkorn Hospital. They had two children together before the untimely death of her husband – from which time onwards, Thongsuk Samdaengpan had to support herself and her children working as a salesperson.[135]

In 1930, Thongsuk Samdaengpan started to study meditation at Wat Paknam Bhasicharoen under the instruction of Luang Pu Sodh. As a laywoman, and later as a maechi, she taught high-profile supporters of Wat Paknam Bhasicharoen, such as that of Liap Sikanchananand. It was at Liap's house that Maechi Thongsuk met Chandra Khonnokyoong, who she taught Dhammakaya meditation. After the two stayed for one month at Wat Paknam, they both ordained as maechis. Maechi Thongsuk travelled around Thailand to spread the Dhamma and teach Dhammakaya Meditation according to the policy of Luang Pu Sodh. Maechi Thongsuk was diagnosed with cervical cancer in 1960, and died because of this on 3 February 1963 at Wat Paknam Bhasicharoen. She was aged sixty-three, having been a maechi for twenty-five years.[136]

Maechi Chandra Khonnokyoong

Maechi Chandra (1909–2000) became strongly interested in meditation when she was still a child, after she was cursed by her drunken father. After he died, she wished to reconcile with him through contacting him in the afterlife. In 1935, she went to Bangkok to work and find a way to meet Luang Pu Sodh. After she met Maechi Thongsuk and learnt meditation from her, she ordained at Wat Paknam.[137][138] She later became a prominent meditation student of Luang Pu Sodh. After Luang Pu Sodh's death, she became instrumental in introducing Dhammakaya meditation to Luang Por Dhammajayo and Luang Por Dattajivo, with who she later found Wat Phra Dhammakaya.[139][75]

Notes

  1. ↑ Expressing criticism of the Supreme Patriarch is punishable by Thai law.[15]

References

  1. 1 2 3 Sirikanchana 2010, p. 885.
  2. 1 2 3 4 Newell 2008.
  3. ↑ Williams, P. (2005). Buddhism: The early Buddhist schools and doctrinal history. Theravāda doctrine. 2. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-33228-1.
  4. ↑ Crosby, Kate (2000). Tantric Theravada: A Bibliographic Essay on the Writings of Francois Bizot and others on the Yogavacara Tradition (PDF). Contemporary Buddhism. I. p. 160. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-12-26.
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  32. ↑ McDaniel 2010, pp. 41, 662.
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  34. ↑ Scott 2009, pp. 129, 137, 143.
  35. ↑ Zehner 1990, p. 424.
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  47. ↑ ภาพมุมสูงของวัดพระธรรมกาย [Top view of Wat Phra Dhammakaya]. Channel 16 (in Thai). Thai News Network. 27 May 2016. Retrieved 11 November 2016.
  48. ↑ สร้างมหาวิหารพระมงคลเทพมุนีFree registration required [Building the great memorial of Phra Mongkolthepmuni]. Dokbia Thurakit (in Thai). 10 September 2001. p. 11. Retrieved 5 December 2016 – via Matichon E-library.
  49. ↑ Khemasiddho, Phra Maha Prasith. ประวัติวัดราชโอรสาราม ราชวรวิหาร [History of Wat Rajorosaram Rajavaraviharn]. Wat Rajorosaram Rajavaraviharn, Rama III's temple (in Thai). Archived from the original on 9 January 2010. Retrieved 23 December 2016. Lay summary – Wat Rajorasaram: Royal Wat First Class - Wat for King Rama III.
  50. 1 2 Sthapitanonda, Nithi; Mertens, Brian (2012). Architecture of Thailand: a guide to traditional and contemporary forms. Singapore: Didier Millet. p. 214. ISBN 981-4260-86-X.
  51. ↑ วัดราชโอรสหรือวัดจอมทอง เขตบางขุทเทียน กรุงเทพฯFree registration required [Wat Rajoaoros or Wat Chomthong, Bang Khun Thian Area, Bangkok]. Khao Sod (in Thai). Matichon Publishing. 23 September 1997. p. 32. Retrieved 13 February 2017 – via Matichon E-library.
  52. ↑ วัดราชโอรสาราม ราชวรวิหาร กทม.Free registration required [Wat Rajorasaram, Royal Temple in Bangkok]. Khao Sod. Matichon Publishing. 28 September 1997. p. 40. Retrieved 13 February 2017 – via Matichon E-library.
  53. ↑ Chokevivat, Vichai; Chuthaputti, Anchalee. The role of Thai traditional medicine in health promotion. The 6th Global Conference on Health Promotion (pdf). Bangkok: Department for the Development of Thai Traditional and Alternative Medicine, Ministry of Public Health, Thailand. p. 4.
  54. ↑ Cowen, Virginia S. (2011). Therapeutic massage and bodywork for autism spectrum disorders: a guide for parents and caregivers. London: Singing Dragon. p. 144. ISBN 1-84819-049-2.
  55. 1 2 3 ชมสถาปัตยกรรม และตระการวัดราชโอรสฯ วัดพระจำราชการสมเด็จพระนั่งเกล้าฯFree registration required [Taking a look at the architecture and grandeur of Wat Rajaoros, the temple of Rama III's reign]. Siam Rath (in Thai). 31 January 1997. p. 29. Retrieved 18 February 2017 – via Matichon E-library.
  56. 1 2 วัดประจำราชกาล ราชกาลที่ 3Free registration required [Favorite temples of the kings: King Rama III's Reign]. Daily News (Thailand). Mummong Song wai (in Thai). 3 February 2016. p. 10 – via Matichon E-library.
  57. ↑ Jotisalikorn, Chami; Di Crocco, Virginia; Bhumadhon, Phuthorn (2012). Classic Thai Design Interiors Architecture. Boston: Tuttle Publishing. ISBN 1-4629-0686-9.
  58. ↑ Van Beek, Steve (2012). The Arts of Thailand. Tuttle Publishing. ISBN 1-4629-0676-1.
  59. ↑ Sitthirangsan, Warunee (29 May 2016). ตำรายาวัดราชโอรสFree registration required [The medicinal texts of Wat Rajaoros]. Matichon (in Thai). p. 7 – via Matichon E-library.
  60. ↑ Hiranras, Nilobon (2015). The Intellectual Property and Alternative Legal Protection for Thai Cultural Heritage Properties, Traditional Knowledge and Products (Ph.D. thesis). Durham University. p. 60.
  61. 1 2 3 4 พระธรรมกิตติวงศ์ ราชบัณฑิต เปิดใจเรื่องการบริหารวัดและการศึกษาFree registration required [Phra Dhammakittiwong, the Ratchabandit, gives his opinion about managing temples and education]. Post Today (in Thai). Post Publishing. 2 November 2008. p. B3. Retrieved 27 March 2017 – via Matichon E-library.
  62. ↑ Bermann, George A.; Symeonides, Symeon (1 January 1998). "American law at the end of the 20th century: U.S. national reports to the XVth International Congress of Comparative Law". American journal of comparative law. American Society of Comparative Law. 46 (Supplement 1998): 82.
  63. ↑ Sucharitkul, Sompong (1998). "Thai Law and Buddhist Law". GGU Law Digital Commons. Golden Gate University School of Law. 667: 21.
  64. ↑ "พระในบ้าน" งานพระธรรมกิตติวงศ์Free registration required [The arahant at home: a work of Phra Dhammakittiwong]. Khao Sod (in Thai). Matichon Publishing. 18 October 1998. p. 23. Retrieved 11 February 2017 – via Matichon E-library.
  65. ↑ Eliot, Joshua; Bickersteth, Jane (1999). Thailand Handbook. Footprint handbooks (2nd ed.). Bath: Footprint. p. 772. ISBN 1-900949-32-6.
  66. ↑ ยึดมติมหาเถรสมาคมตั้งสำนักงานพระพุทธศาสนาแห่งชาติ ยุติความสับสนFree registration required [Supreme Sangha Council adheres to decision to set up National Office of Buddhism to end confusion]. Thai Rath (in Thai). 30 June 2001. p. 15. Retrieved 27 March 2017 – via Matichon E-library.
  67. ↑ เผยตัวเก็งมหาเถรสมาคม 4 รูปแทนพระธรรมกิตติวงศ์Free registration required [Four candidates revealed for replacing position Phra Dhammakittiwong]. Matichon (in Thai). 28 June 2001. p. 23. Retrieved 27 March 2017 – via Matichon E-library.
  68. ↑ "Removal of senior monk approved"Free registration required. The Nation. 27 June 2001. p. 20. Retrieved 27 March 2017 – via Matichon E-library.
  69. ↑ พระธรรมกิตติวงส์แนะตั้งอนุศาสน์ป้อนโรงเรียนFree registration required [Phra Dhammakittiwong advises to set up school chaplains]. Khao Sod (in Thai). Matichon Publishing. 27 June 2001. p. 31. Retrieved 27 March 2017 – via Matichon E-library.
  70. ↑ พระธรรมกิตติวงศ์ โต้ข้อกล่าวหาชาวพุทธFree registration required [Phra Dhammakittiwong replies to accusations Buddhists]. Daily News (Thailand) (in Thai). Sri Prayakarn. 21 June 2001. p. 13 – via Matichon E-library.
  71. ↑ พระพรหทเวที ขึ้นสมเด็จพระพุฒาจารย์ พระธรรมกิตติวงศ์ รองสมเด็จ เจ้าคูณใหม่ 44 รูปFree registration required [Phra Phromwethi receives name Somdet Phra Putthacharn, Phra Dhammakittiwong becomes vice-patriarch, 44 others receive Chao Khun title]. Khao Sod (in Thai). Matichon Publishing. 7 November 2014. p. 27. Retrieved 27 March 2017 – via Matichon E-library.
  72. ↑ Khemasiddho, Phra Maha Prasith. การศึกษาพระปริยัติธรรม [Study and courses]. Wat Rajorosaram Rajavaraviharn, Rama III's temple (in Thai). Archived from the original on 9 January 2010. Retrieved 23 December 2016.
  73. ↑ ไถ่ชีวิตโค–กระบือ 359 ตัวFree registration required [Life release of 359 oxen and buffaloes]. Daily News (Thailand) (in Thai). 6 February 1999. p. 11. Retrieved 27 March 2017 – via Matichon E-library.
  74. ↑ Zehner, Edwin (2005). "Dhammakāya Movement" (PDF). In Jones, Lindsay. Encyclopedia of Religion. 4 (2 ed.). Farmington Hills: Thomson Gale. p. 2324. Retrieved 15 September 2016.
  75. 1 2 Fuengfusakul 1998.
  76. ↑ Cheng, Tun-jen; Brown, Deborah A. Religious Organizations and Democratization: Case Studies from Contemporary Asia: Case Studies from Contemporary Asia. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-46105-0. Retrieved 19 September 2016.
  77. 1 2 Newell 2008, pp. 110, 118–9.
  78. 1 2 Litalien, Manuel (January 2010). Développement social et régime providentiel en thaïlande: La philanthropie religieuse en tant que nouveau capital démocratique [Social development and a providential regime in Thailand: Religious philanthropy as a new form of democratic capital] (PDF) (Ph.D. Thesis, published as a monograph in 2016) (in French). Université du Québec à Montréal. p. 132.
  79. ↑ Mackenzie 2007, p. 40.
  80. 1 2 แบนหลวงป๋าขึ้นเทศน์วันนี้Free registration required [Today Luang Pa is not allowed to teach]. Kom Chad Luek (in Thai). The Nation Group. 18 July 2004. Retrieved 23 December 2016 – via Matichon E-library.
  81. ↑ ติดเบรกพระเทศน์รัฐบาลFree registration required [Monks forbidden to preach about government]. Kom Chad Luek (in Thai). The Nation Group. 17 July 2004. p. 16 – via Matichon E-library.
  82. ↑ Yong, Thepchai (20 July 2004). "Words of wisdom, as approved by the government"Free registration required. The Nation (in Thai). p. 10A. Retrieved 23 December 2016 – via Matichon E-library.
  83. ↑ วัดหลวงพ่อสด จ.ราชบุรีปฏิบัติธรรมปราบคอรัปชั่นFree registration required [Wat Luang Phor Sodh in Ratburi [teaches] meditation to get rid of corruption]. Kom Chad Luek (in Thai). 2 October 2004. Retrieved 23 December 2016 – via Matichon E-library.
  84. ↑ พระมหาเจดีย์สมเด็จของพระราชญาณวิสิฐ (หลวงป๋า)Free registration required [The great stupa "Somdet", by Phra Rajyanvisith (Luang Pa)]. Kom Chad Luek (in Thai). 21 November 2007. Retrieved 23 December 2016 – via Matichon E-library.
  85. ↑ ร่วมบุญทอดผ้าป่าพระนวกะวัดหลวงพ่อสดFree registration required [Contribute to the offering of robes to newly ordained monks at Wat Luang Phor Sodh]. Kom Chad Luek (in Thai). The Nation Group. 3 October 2014. p. 30. Retrieved 23 December 2016 – via Matichon E-library.
  86. ↑ Lechner, Frank (1994). "Fundamentalisms Observed (The Fundamentalism Project, Volume I), Fundamentalisms and Society: Reclaiming the Sciences, the Family, and Education (The Fundamentalism Project, Volume 2), and Fundamentalisms and the State: Remaking Polities, Economies, and Militance (The Fundamentalism Project, Volume 3), edited by Martin E. Marty and R. Scott Appleby". Sociology of Religion. 55 (3): 359–363. JSTOR 3712059. doi:10.2307/3712059.
  87. ↑ Swearer 1991.
  88. ↑ Scott, Rachelle M. (December 2006). A new Buddhist sect?: The Dhammakāya temple and the politics of religious difference. Religion. 36. passim. doi:10.1016/j.religion.2006.10.001.
  89. ↑ Cousins, L.S. (1996). Skorupski, T., ed. The Origins of Insight Meditation. The Buddhist Forum: Seminar Papers, 1994–1996. London: University of London, School of Oriental and African Studies. p. 39.
  90. ↑ Newell 2008, p. 82.
  91. ↑ Mackenzie 2007, p. 76.
  92. ↑ Scott 2009, pp. 66, 79.
  93. ↑ McDaniel, Justin (2006). "Buddhism in Thailand: Negotiating the Modern Age". In Berkwitz, Stephen C. Buddhism in World Cultures: Comparative Perspectives. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. ISBN 1-85109-787-2.
  94. ↑ ที่นี่ปลอดวัตถุมงคลและไสยศาสตร์ วัดหลวงพ่อสดธรรมกายารามFree registration required [This area is free from superstitious objects and magic: Wat Luang Phor Sodh Dhammakayaram]. Kom Chad Luek (in Thai). The Nation Group. 18 September 2005. p. 16 – via Matichon E-library.
  95. ↑ Cook, Nerida M. (1981). The position of nuns in Thai Buddhism: The parameters of religious recognition (Ph.D. Thesis). Research School of Archaeology and Anthropology, Australian National University. p. 126.
  96. 1 2 Newell 2008, p. 96.
  97. ↑ Mackenzie 2007, pp. 61, 92.
  98. 1 2 Williams 2008.
  99. ↑ Crosby 2000, p. 160.
  100. ↑ Mackenzie 2007, p. 95.
  101. ↑ Crosby, Kate (2013). Traditional Theravada Meditation and its Modern-Era Suppression. Hong Kong: Buddha Dharma Centre of Hong Kong. ISBN 978-988-16820-2-4.
  102. ↑ The Life and Times of Luang Phaw Wat Paknam. Bangkok: Dhammakaya Foundation. 1998. ISBN 978-974-89409-4-6.
  103. ↑ Mackenzie 2007, p. 113.
  104. ↑ Newell 2008, p. 235.
  105. ↑ Taylor 1989.
  106. ↑ Satha-Anand, Suwanna (1 January 1990). "Religious Movements in Contemporary Thailand: Buddhist Struggles for Modern Relevance". Asian Survey. 30 (4): 400. JSTOR 2644715. doi:10.2307/2644715.
  107. ↑ Scott 2009, p. 52.
  108. ↑ Mackenzie 2007.
  109. ↑ Fuengfusakul 1993, p. 173.
  110. ↑ Zehner 1990.
  111. ↑ Mackenzie 2007, p. 31.
  112. ↑ Harvey 2013, p. 390.
  113. ↑ Williams 2008, pp. 126–128.
  114. ↑ Williams 2008, p. 126.
  115. ↑ Fuengfusakul 1998, p. 88.
  116. ↑ Williams 2008, pp. 127–8.
  117. ↑ Thanavuddho, Phra Somchai (1999). นิพพานเป็นอัตตาหรืออนัตตา. Bangkok: ประดิพัทธ์. ISBN 974-7308-18-5. Archived from the original on 2005-01-18.
  118. ↑ Chalermsripinyorat, Rungrawee (2002). "Doing the Business of Faith: The Capitalistic Dhammakaya Movement and the Spiritually-thirsty Thai Middle Class" (PDF). Manusya: Journal of Humanities. 5 (1): 14–20.
  119. ↑ Scott 2009, p. 80.
  120. ↑ ธรรมกาย..."เรา คือ ผู้บริสุทธิ์" ผู้ใดเห็นธรรม ผู้นั้นเห็นเราตถาคตFree registration required [Dhammakaya: "We are innocent.", "He who sees the Dhamma, sees me, the Tathagata"]. Dokbia Thurakit (in Thai). 15 March 1999. p. 5. Retrieved 12 December 2016 – via Matichon E-library.
  121. ↑ Newell 2008, p. 248.
  122. ↑ Fuengfusakul 1998, p. 99.
  123. ↑ Harvey 2013, p. 389.
  124. 1 2 Newell 2008, p. 85.
  125. ↑ Falk, Monica Lindberg (2007). Making fields of merit : Buddhist female ascetics and gendered orders in Thailand. Copenhagen: NIAS Press. ISBN 978-87-7694-019-5.
  126. ↑ Mackenzie 2007, p. 36.
  127. ↑ Newell 2008, pp. 86–90.
  128. ↑ Sivaraksa, Sulak (1987). Thai Spirituality (PDF). Journal of the Siam Society. 75. Siam Society. p. 86.
  129. ↑ ถวายปริญญาศิลปศาสตรดุษฎีบัณฑิตกิตติมศักดิ์ แด่สมเด็จพระมหารัชมังคลาจารย์ [Offering an Honorary Arts Degree to Somdet Phramaharachamangalacharn]. Thai Rath (in Thai). Wacharapol. 2 April 2014. Retrieved 24 December 2016.
  130. ↑ Newell 2008, pp. 90, 106.
  131. ↑ Sirikanchana 2010.
  132. ↑ Newell 2008, p. 119.
  133. ↑ Newell 2008, p. 117.
  134. ↑ Newell 2008, pp. 106, 131.
  135. ↑ Dhammakaya Foundation 2005.
  136. ↑ Dhammakaya Foundation 2005, pp. 17, 44–5, 67, 69.
  137. ↑ Scott 2009, pp. 71–2.
  138. ↑ Mackenzie 2007, p. 34.
  139. ↑ Scott 2009, pp. 72–4.

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