List of highways in Warren County, New York

Map of Warren County's highway system
Highway names
Interstates: Interstate X (I-X)
US Highways: U.S. Route X (US X)
State: New York State Route X (NY X)
County: County Route X (CR X)
System links

The highway system of Warren County, New York, comprises 1,248.6 miles (2,009.4 km) of roads maintained by the New York State Department of Transportation, the county, and its towns and villages.[1] Fourteen state-maintained highways enter the county, which account for a combined 219.4 miles (353.1 km) of the state highway mileage in New York. The state roads are supplemented by 245.3 miles (394.8 km) of county-maintained highways.[1] Most roads within the county are short connectors, while others are sections of 30-mile (48 km) long highways. Warren County is served by one Interstate Highway, I-87, also known as the Adirondack Northway; one United States Numbered Highway, US 9; eight state-numbered signed touring routes; three state-maintained reference routes, all of which are unsigned; and 81 county-maintained routes, most of which are short connectors between more major roads.

The longest state route within the county is NY 9N, which runs for 48.58 miles (78.18 km) within Warren County. The shortest state-maintained route is NY 911E, a 0.2-mile (0.32 km) reference route just east of the city of Glens Falls.[2] The state highways in Warren County serve many of the county's major municipalities, including Glens Falls, the towns of Warrensburg and Queensbury, and the village of Lake George.

Highways

Interstate and US Highways

The busy downtown of Lake George Village along Canada Street (US 9 / NY 9N)

I-87 is the only Interstate Highway that enters Warren County. It travels for 38.53 miles (62.01 km) within the county and has nine interchanges along the way.[2] Exits off the highway serve Glens Falls, Queensbury, Warrensburg, Lake George, Bolton Landing, and Chestertown. The highway once terminated in downtown Lake George, with its former two-lane end becoming NY 912Q after the highway was extended northward.[3]

There have been two U.S. Highways in Warren County. The longest—and the only current one—is US 9, which spans for over 40.43 miles (65.07 km) within the county.[2][4] Since its designation in 1926,[5] US 9 services the city of Glens Falls, Queensbury, the village of Lake George, Warrensburg and Chestertown before leaving for Essex County.[4] US 9 once had four suffixed routes in the county;[6] however, only two still exist.[4] Also assigned in 1926 was US 4, which initially terminated in Glens Falls at US 9.[5] It was realigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York to follow the Hudson River south from Hudson Falls to the Capital District, bypassing Warren County to the east.[7][8]

State touring routes and scenic byways

Touring routes are signed with black and white route markers, and small, green reference markers are posted along the state-maintained sections of the routes. There have been 18 state signed touring routes in Warren County since the modern state touring system was established in 1924; however, only 10 of them remain. Three routes created in 1924—NY 6, NY 10, and NY 30—entered the Warren County limits, crossing the county in a north–south manner.[9] Another route, NY 47, was assigned by 1926 to an alignment extending from Chestertown to Ticonderoga via Hague.[10] NY 6 was replaced by US 9 in 1927,[11] and the three other routes were realigned out of the county or eliminated entirely as part of the 1930 renumbering.[12]

NY 9N passes through the thriving downtown of Bolton Landing

The post-renumbering state route system in Warren County was identical to the current route layout, save for a handful of routes. In the 1930 renumbering, NY 9K was assigned to NY 10's former routing between Saratoga Springs and Lake George while NY 47 was reassigned to a highway between Lake George village and Hague that ran along the western shore of Lake George. NY 9N, meanwhile, initially began in Elizabethtown, Essex County.[12] That route was extended south twice: first to Lake George c. 1936, replacing NY 47;[13][14] and again to Saratoga Springs in the early 1950s, supplanting NY 9K.[15][16] Also assigned in the renumbering was NY 32B, an alternate route of NY 32 that began in Glens Falls and followed the Hudson River east into Washington County.[12] NY 9M, a north–south spur connecting US 9 to NY 8, was assigned by the following year,[17] but eliminated c. 1939.[18][19]

By 1940, NY 32 was extended into Warren County, passing through Glens Falls and Queensbury on its way to a terminus in Washington County.[20] NY 32B initially overlapped with NY 32 along Warren Street; however, it was truncated eastward to begin in Queensbury c. 1962[21][22] and eliminated c. 1965. It was partially replaced by NY 254, a northeasterly bypass of Glens Falls from I-87 to Washington County.[23][24]

Of the 10 current routes, NY 418 in Warrensburg is the shortest while NY 9N is the longest.[2] Other active routes in Warren County include NY 8, which spans the northern part of the county; NY 9L, a short suffixed route of US 9; NY 149, a connector from I-87 to the Vermont border in Warren and nearby Washington Counties; NY 28, which serves western Warren County and terminates in Johnsburg; and its suffixed route, NY 28N, which ends in the western part of the county.[25]

Prospect Mountain Veterans Memorial Highway at one of the three scenic overlooks on the mountainside

There are 13 New York State Scenic Byways in the Adirondacks alone, three of them in Warren County. The first is the Roosevelt–Marcy Trail, which runs on NY 28N.[26] The second is the Dude Ranch Trail, a loop in Warren and nearby Saratoga counties,[27] and the third is the Central Adirondack Trail, which utilizes parts of NY 9L, US 9 and NY 28.[28]

State reference routes

There are three state-maintained reference routes in Warren County. A reference route is a road owned by the state but are signed only with reference markers. The shortest of these is NY 911E, an east–west highway connecting NY 32 to NY 254.[2] The route is the only portion of NY 32B's former alignment in Warren County that did not become part of NY 254.[23] Although it is the shortest reference route in the county, the New York State Department of Transportation has reserved NY 656, a replacement touring route designation, for the highway. A date for the renumbering has not been determined.[25] The longest of Warren County's three reference routes is NY 917A,[2] better known as the Prospect Mountain Veterans Memorial Highway.[25] The final reference route is NY 912Q, a two lane freeway spur leading east from I-87 exit 22.[3][29]

County routes

There are 81 county-maintained roads in Warren County. Most are short connectors between major roadways, although a few are former state roads. A few examples are CR 64 and CR 62, both of which were part of NY 9M during the 1930s,[6] and CR 79, which was part of NY 32 until 1981.[30][31] In some cases, a single county route designation has been assigned to several different highways. An example is CR 11, which begins at an intersection with CR 10 just east of the Northway (I-87) in Chestertown, but splits into two east of Riverbank. Until 2009, Warren County Routes were not signed like normal touring routes; instead, they were marked with tab-like signs mounted on the back of poles. There was one exception, as CR 23 was signed as a normal county route would.[32]

New county highway signage on CR 4 in Warrensburg. The old tab style can be seen affixed to the Speed Limit 40 sign in the background

In November 2007, locals of Warren County produced concern that the salt used on several county highways including CR 7, CR 11, and CR 35 was starting to harm the fragile environment of Lake George and the surrounding area. The Warren County Highway Department uses an average of 9,000 short tons (8,165 t) of salt on the roads around the Lake George area annually. The salt is beginning to flow into the lake, causing a harmful environmental impact. Since the amount of salt in Lake George has doubled since the 1980s, the highway department switched from using sand entirely to using salt for safety of drivers, rather than the environment. Local officials recognize the problem at hand and are trying to find ways to minimize salt usage.[33]

In late 2009, Warren County DPW began adding the Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices-standard pentagon shield to their county roads. At first, signage was generally limited to the terminus of a single road, and roads were not signed at intersections with other county or state roads or when numbers change. By 2016, Warren County had placed signs at most, if not all, locations where numbers change, as well as some junction assemblies where routes intersect, such as on southbound CR 58 (West Mountain Road) approaching CR 28 (Corinth Road).

List of Interstate, US, and state highways

The chart below shows current Interstate, U.S., and state highways by year of creation, length, and towns crossed. "Formed" displays the year or time period in which the route was assigned; "Length" shows the highway's total length in Warren County.

Route Formed Length[2] Towns crossed
mi km
I-87 1957[34] 38.53 62.01 Queensbury, Lake George, Warrensburg, Chester
US 9 1926[5] 40.43 65.07 Glens Falls, Queensbury, Lake George, Warrensburg, Chester
NY 8 1930[12] 46.79 75.30 Chester, Johnsburg
NY 9L 1930[8] 18.58 29.90 Queensbury, Lake George
NY 9N 1930[12] 48.58 78.18 Lake Luzerne, Lake George, Bolton, Hague
NY 28 1930[12] 21.23 34.17 Chester, Warrensburg
NY 28N 1930[12] 4.54 7.31 North Creek
NY 32 1930[12] 2.88 4.63 Glens Falls, Queensbury
NY 149 1930[8] 5.90 9.50 Queensbury
NY 254 c. 1965[23][24] 5.34 8.59 Queensbury
NY 418 1930[8] 3.50 5.63 Warrensburg
NY 911E — 0.20 0.32 Queensbury
NY 912Q 1967[29] 0.66 1.06 Lake George
NY 917A 1969[35] 5.88 9.46 Lake George

List of county routes

The chart below covers the county routes in Warren County. The county route system was established in February 1968.[36] Route numbers, lengths, and termini were derived from the 2010 NYSDOT Warren County inventory unless otherwise noted.[37]

Route Length
(mi)[37]		 Length
(km)		 From Via To Notes
CR 1[38] 0.9 miles (1.4 km) south of NY 8 Riverside Station Road in Johnsburg NY 8 Former number; now town-maintained
CR 2 2.73 4.39 CR 3 at Stony Creek town line Stony Creek Road in Thurman CR 4
CR 3 6.53 10.51 Becomes CR 22 0.27 miles (0.43 km) north of CR 76 Harrisburg and Warrensburg Roads in Stony Creek CR 2 at Thurman town line
CR 4 7.82 12.59 NY 418 Stony Creek and Athol Roads, High Street, Mountain and Valley Roads in Thurman CR 57 at Garnet Lake Road
CR 5 0.27 0.43 CR 9 Fourth Avenue in Warrensburg US 9
CR 6 (1) 0.56 0.90 US 9 Fort George Road in Lake George CR 51
CR 6 (2) 0.19 0.31 Lake George Beach State Park Beach Road in Lake George NY 9L Unsigned
CR 7 8.42 13.55 Glens Falls city line Bay Road in Queensbury NY 9L
CR 8 6.69 10.77 NY 28 Friends Lake Road in Chester US 9 / NY 8
CR 9 1.35 2.17 CR 40 at Fish Hatchery Road Hudson and Elm Streets in Warrensburg NY 418 / CR 45
CR 10 11.07 17.82 US 9 Horicon Avenue and Schroon River Road in Warrensburg CR 30 at Chester town line
CR 11 (1) 4.67 7.52 CR 10 in Warrensburg Bolton Landing–Riverbank Road NY 9N in Bolton
CR 11 (2) 4.29 6.90 CR 11 (segment 1) Valley Woods Road in Bolton NY 9N
CR 12 3.02 4.86 Saratoga County line (becomes CR 1) Hadley Road in Stony Creek CR 3
CR 13 6.26 10.07 CR 4 The Glen–Athol Road in Thurman NY 28
CR 14 (1) 0.38 0.61 CR 60 at Judd Bridge River Street in Warrensburg NY 418
CR 14 (2) 0.70 1.13 NY 418 Milton Street and Library Avenue in Warrensburg CR 9
CR 14 (3) 0.06 0.10 CR 9 Stewart Farrar Street in Warrensburg US 9
CR 15 4.27 6.87 CR 62 / CR 64 East Shore Drive in Horicon Beaver Pond Road
CR 16 5.34 8.59 CR 44 Bay Road and East River Drive in Lake Luzerne Saratoga County line (becomes CR 9)
CR 17 3.90 6.28 US 9 Round Pond, Blind Rock, and Haviland Roads in Queensbury NY 9L
CR 18 0.25 0.40 NY 9N Sagamore Road in Bolton Bridge over Lake George
CR 19 4.86 7.82 Essex County line (becomes CR 29) Olmstedville Road in Chester US 9
CR 21 (1) 4.68 7.53 NY 8 West Hague Road in Hague Essex County line (becomes CR 38)
CR 21 (2) 2.25 3.62 Essex County line (becomes CR 38) West Hague Road in Hague NY 9N
CR 21A 0.80 1.29 CR 21 New Hague Road in Hague Essex County line (becomes CR 11)
CR 22 8.60 13.84 Bridge over Halfway Brook Harrisburg Road in Stony Creek Becomes CR 3 0.27 miles (0.43 km) north of CR 76
CR 23 0.31 0.50 Infirmary Road Gurney Lane in Queensbury US 9
CR 24 0.36 0.58 US 9 Mountain Avenue, King Street, and Hackensack Avenue in Warrensburg US 9 Unsigned
CR 25 0.37 0.60 CR 11 (segment 2) Brook Street and Goodman Avenue in Bolton NY 9N
CR 26 7.69 12.38 NY 8 Palisades Road in Horicon NY 8
CR 27 1.20 1.93 CR 11 (segment 2) Federal Hill Road in Bolton CR 41 at Frank Cameron Road
CR 28 5.20 8.37 CR 32 at Lake Luzerne town line Corinth Road and Main Street in Queensbury Glens Falls city line
CR 29 (1) 4.23 6.81 NY 8 Peaceful Valley Road in Johnsburg NY 28
CR 29 (2) 0.20 0.32 NY 28 Peaceful Valley Road in Johnsburg CR 77
CR 30 3.66 5.89 CR 10 at Warrensburg town line Schroon River Road in Chester CR 53 at bridge over Schroon River
CR 31 1.84 2.96 CR 30 in Chester Horicon Avenue NY 8 in Horicon
CR 32 5.26 8.47 CR 16 Call Street in Lake Luzerne CR 28 at Queensbury town line
CR 33 0.23 0.37 NY 8 Market Street in Horicon NY 8
CR 34 0.94 1.51 US 9 Glenwood Avenue in Queensbury CR 7
CR 35 3.89 6.26 US 9 Diamond Point–Bakers Crossing Road in Lake George NY 9N
CR 36 3.80 6.12 CR 4 Valley Road in Thurman CR 13
CR 37 0.12 0.19 Red Wing Road Beaver Pond Road in Horicon CR 55
CR 38 0.68 1.09 NY 9L Pilot Knob Road in Queensbury Washington County line (becomes CR 32)
CR 39 1.05 1.69 NY 9L / CR 54 Sunnyside East Road in Queensbury Washington County line (becomes CR 35)
CR 40 3.89 6.26 CR 9 at Fish Hatchery Road Golf Course Road in Warrensburg NY 28
CR 41 4.28 6.89 CR 27 at Frank Cameron Road Federal Hill, Sawmill, and North Bolton Roads in Bolton CR 11 (segment 1)
CR 42 0.73 1.17 Glens Falls city line Dix Avenue in Queensbury NY 32
CR 43 0.15 0.24 Riverside Drive Church Street in Chester US 9
CR 44 0.52 0.84 Saratoga County line (becomes CR 4) Bridge, Main, and Mill Streets in Lake Luzerne NY 9N
CR 45 0.17 0.27 US 9 Water Street in Warrensburg NY 418 / CR 9
CR 46 4.03 6.49 NY 28 in Warrensburg Potter Brook and Atateka Drives CR 8 in Chester
CR 47 0.61 0.98 US 9 Quaker Road in Queensbury CR 34 Entire length overlaps with NY 254
CR 48 (1) 1.12 1.80 South Trout Lake Road Lamb Hill Road in Bolton East end of county maintenance
CR 48 (2) 2.22 3.57 West end of county maintenance Trout Lake Road in Bolton NY 9N
CR 48 (3) 0.12 0.19 CR 10 County Home Bridge Road in Warrensburg Bridge over Schroon River
CR 49 4.04 6.50 NY 9N Coolidge Hill Road in Bolton CR 48 (segment 2)
CR 50 1.29 2.08 NY 8 Sunset Drive in Hague CR 21
CR 51 0.51 0.82 US 9 Beach Road in Lake George CR 6 Unsigned
CR 52 3.63 5.84 CR 79 Queensbury Avenue and Hicks Road in Queensbury NY 9L
CR 53 0.99 1.59 CR 30 at bridge over Schroon River Watering Tub Road in Horicon NY 8
CR 54 0.95 1.53 CR 7 / CR 63 Sunnyside Road in Queensbury NY 9L / CR 39
CR 55 6.86 11.04 CR 53 Valentine Pond Road in Horicon CR 37
CR 56 2.83 4.55 US 9 / NY 8 White School House–Butternut Flats Road in Chester US 9
CR 57 6.84 11.01 CR 4 at Garnet Lake Road in Thurman South Johnsburg Road NY 8 in Johnsburg
CR 58 5.92 9.53 CR 28 West Mountain Road in Queensbury CR 23
CR 59 1.74 2.80 US 9 Bloody Pond Road in Lake George NY 9L
CR 60 (1) 3.60 5.79 NY 9N Old Stage Road in Lake Luzerne Warrensburg town line
CR 60 (2) 3.44 5.54 Cross Road Harrington Hill Road in Warrensburg CR 14 at Judd Bridge
CR 62 0.76 1.22 CR 15 / CR 64 in Horicon Glendale Road US 9 in Chester Formerly part of NY 9M
CR 63 1.17 1.88 NY 149 Moon Hill Road in Queensbury CR 7 / CR 54
CR 64 3.94 6.34 CR 55 East Schroon River Road in Horicon CR 15 / CR 62 Formerly part of NY 9M
CR 65 1.43 2.30 CR 8 Knapp Hill Road in Chester Riverside Drive
CR 66 1.39 2.24 CR 47 Country Club Road in Queensbury CR 17
CR 67 1.15 1.85 CR 2 Cameron Road in Thurman CR 4
CR 68 4.89 7.87 NY 8 Landon Hill Road in Chester US 9
CR 69 0.29 0.47 US 9 West Brook Road in Lake George CR 51 Unsigned
CR 70 3.33 5.36 CR 34 Quaker Road in Queensbury NY 911E Entire length overlaps with NY 254
CR 71 0.95 1.53 Flat Rock Road Stone School House Road in Lake George NY 9N
CR 72 8.33 13.41 Bridge over Pine Ridge Brook in Thurman Garnet Lake Road NY 8 in Johnsburg
CR 73 1.30 2.09 Gore Mountain Gore Mountain Road in Johnsburg CR 29
CR 74 1.82 2.93 CR 8 Atateka Drive in Chester CR 46
CR 75 1.29 2.08 CR 56 Ben Culver Road in Chester CR 68
CR 76 5.68 9.14 CR 3 in Stony Creek Lanfear, Murray, and Dartmouth Roads and High Street CR 4 in Thurman
CR 77 1.81 2.91 NY 28 Main Street in Johnsburg NY 28 Former routing of NY 28
CR 78 3.40 5.47 Beach Road Thirteenth Lake Road in Johnsburg NY 28
CR 79 0.84 1.35 NY 32 / NY 911E Boulevard in Queensbury Washington County line (becomes CR 75) Former routing of NY 32
CR 80 0.14 0.23 NY 28N Circle Avenue in Johnsburg CR 77 Unsigned
CR 81 0.15 0.24 Dead end Railroad Place in Johnsburg CR 77 Unsigned
CR 82 0.11 0.18 NY 28 Ski Bowl Road in Johnsburg CR 77 Unsigned
CR 83 0.04 0.06 The Great Escape & Splashwater Kingdom Six Flags Drive in Queensbury US 9 Unsigned

See also

References

  1. 1 2 "Statewide Highway Mileage Summary" (PDF). New York State Department of Transportation. 2010. p. 24. Archived from the original (PDF) on January 21, 2015. Retrieved January 12, 2012.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 "2006 Traffic Data Report for New York State" (PDF). New York State Department of Transportation. July 16, 2007. Retrieved May 7, 2008.
  3. 1 2 "Schroon Lake 1804 - 2004". Adirondack Gold Pages. 2008. Retrieved May 7, 2008.
  4. 1 2 3 1977–2007 I Love New York State Map (Map). I Love New York. 2007.
  5. 1 2 3 Bureau of Public Roads & American Association of State Highway Officials (November 11, 1926). United States System of Highways Adopted for Uniform Marking by the American Association of State Highway Officials (Map). 1:7,000,000. Washington, DC: U.S. Geological Survey. OCLC 32889555. Retrieved November 7, 2013 – via University of North Texas Libraries.
  6. 1 2 Texaco Road Map – New York (Map). Cartography by Rand McNally and Company. Texas Oil Company. 1932.
  7. ↑ New York in Soconyland (Map). Cartography by General Drafting. Standard Oil Company of New York. 1929.
  8. 1 2 3 4 Road Map of New York (Map). Cartography by General Drafting. Standard Oil Company of New York. 1930.
  9. ↑ "New York's Main Highways Designated by Numbers". The New York Times. December 21, 1924. p. XX9.
  10. ↑ Official Map Showing State Highways and other important roads (Map). Cartography by Rand McNally and Company. State of New York Department of Public Works. 1926.
  11. ↑ Automobile Blue Book. 1 (1927 ed.). Chicago: Automobile Blue Book, Inc. 1927. This edition shows U.S. Routes as they were first officially signed in 1927.
  12. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Dickinson, Leon A. (January 12, 1930). "New Signs for State Highways". The New York Times. p. 136.
  13. ↑ Road Map & Historical Guide – New York (Map). Cartography by Rand McNally and Company. Sun Oil Company. 1935.
  14. ↑ New York (Map). Cartography by General Drafting. Standard Oil Company. 1936.
  15. ↑ New York (Map). Cartography by Rand McNally and Company. Sunoco. 1952.
  16. ↑ New York with Special Maps of Putnam–Rockland–Westchester Counties and Finger Lakes Region (Map) (1955–56 ed.). Cartography by General Drafting. Esso. 1954.
  17. ↑ New York (Map). Cartography by H.M. Gousha Company. Kendall Refining Company. 1931.
  18. ↑ Thibodeau, William A. (1938). The ALA Green Book (1938–39 ed.). Automobile Legal Association.
  19. ↑ New York (Map). Cartography by General Drafting. Standard Oil Company. 1939.
  20. ↑ New York (Map). Cartography by General Drafting. Esso. 1940.
  21. ↑ New York and Metropolitan New York (Map) (1961–62 ed.). Cartography by H.M. Gousha Company. Sunoco. 1961.
  22. ↑ New York and Metropolitan New York (Map). Cartography by Rand McNally and Company. Sinclair Oil Corporation. 1962.
  23. 1 2 3 New York and Metropolitan New York (Map). Cartography by Rand McNally and Company. Sinclair Oil Corporation. 1964.
  24. 1 2 New York (Map). Cartography by Rand McNally and Company. Mobil. 1965.
  25. 1 2 3 New York State Department of Transportation (January 2012). Official Description of Highway Touring Routes, Bicycling Touring Routes, Scenic Byways, & Commemorative/Memorial Designations in New York State (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on July 29, 2013. Retrieved February 16, 2012.
  26. ↑ "Roosevelt–Marcy Trail". United States Department of Transportation. 2007. Retrieved May 9, 2008.
  27. ↑ "Dude Ranch Trail". United States Department of Transportation. 2007. Retrieved May 9, 2008.
  28. ↑ "Central Adirondack Trail". United States Department of Transportation. 2007. Retrieved May 9, 2008.
  29. 1 2 Lamy, Margaret (May 18, 1966). "Big Gaps Are Being Closed in the Link Between the Thruway and Canada". The New York Times. Retrieved May 7, 2008.
  30. ↑ Hudson Falls Quadrangle – New York (Map). 1:24,000. 7.5 Minute Series (Topographic). United States Geological Survey. 1966. Retrieved February 5, 2011.
  31. ↑ New York State Legislature. "New York State Highway Law § 341". Retrieved February 5, 2011.
  32. ↑ Perry, Nathan. "Warren County Roads". Empire State Roads. Retrieved May 7, 2008.
  33. ↑ Feigl, Charles (November 30, 2007). "Salting roads draws concern". The Post-Star. Glens Falls, New York. Retrieved January 17, 2009.
  34. ↑ Official route numbering for the National System of Interstate and Defense Highways (Map). American Association of State Highway Officials. August 14, 1957.
  35. ↑ "Missing veterans honored on mountaintop". The Post-Star. Glens Falls, New York. June 4, 2007. Retrieved June 13, 2008.
  36. ↑ "Order of the County Superintendent of Highways Establishing Through Highways and Stop or Yield Intersections in the County of Warren, State of New York" (PDF). The Warrensburg-Lake George News. February 5, 1970. p. 14. Retrieved August 8, 2016.
  37. 1 2 "Warren County Inventory Listing". New York State Department of Transportation. March 2, 2010. Archived from the original (CSV) on April 8, 2013. Retrieved February 4, 2011.
  38. ↑ North Creek Digital Raster Quadrangle (Map). 1:24,000. New York State Department of Transportation. 1992. Retrieved February 4, 2011.

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