Cooking oil

Cooking oil is plant, animal, or synthetic fat used in frying, baking, and other types of cooking. It is also used in food preparation and flavouring not involving heat, such as salad dressings and bread dips, and in this sense might be more accurately termed edible oil.

Cooking oil is typically a liquid at room temperature, although some oils that contain saturated fat, such as coconut oil, palm oil and palm kernel oil are solid.[1]

There are a wide variety of cooking oils from plant sources such as olive oil, palm oil, soybean oil, canola oil (rapeseed oil), corn oil, peanut oil and other vegetable oils, as well as animal-based oils like butter and lard.

Oil can be flavoured with aromatic foodstuffs such as herbs, chillies or garlic.

Health and nutrition

Olive oil
Sunflower seed oil

A guideline for the appropriate amount of fat—a component of daily food consumption—is established by regulatory agencies like the Food and Drug Administration. The recommendation is that 10% or fewer of daily calories should be from saturated fat, and 20-35% of total daily calories should come from polyunsaturated and monounsaturated fats.[2]

While consumption of small amounts of saturated fats is common in diets,[3] meta-analyses found a significant correlation between high consumption of saturated fats and blood LDL concentration,[4] a risk factor for cardiovascular diseases.[5] Other meta-analyses based on cohort studies and on controlled, randomized trials found a positive,[6] or neutral,[7] effect from consuming polyunsaturated fats instead of saturated fats (a 10% lower risk for 5% replacement).[7]

Mayo Clinic has highlighted certain oils that are high in saturated fats, including coconut, palm oil and palm kernel oil. Those having lower amounts of saturated fats and higher levels of unsaturated (preferably monounsaturated) fats like olive oil, peanut oil, canola oil, soy and cottonseed oils are generally healthier.[8] The US National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute[9] urged saturated fats be replaced with polyunsaturated and monounsaturated fats, listing olive and canola oils as sources of healthier monounsaturated oils while soybean and sunflower oils as good sources of polyunsaturated fats. One study showed that consumption of non-hydrogenated unsaturated oils like soybean and sunflower are preferable to the consumption of palm oil for lowering the risk of heart disease.[10]

Peanut oil, cashew oil and other nut-based oils may present a hazard to persons with a nut allergy.

Trans fats

Unlike other dietary fats, trans fats are not essential, and they do not promote good health.[11] The consumption of trans fats increases one's risk of coronary heart disease[12] by raising levels of "bad" LDL cholesterol and lowering levels of "good" HDL cholesterol.[13] Trans fats from partially hydrogenated oils are more harmful than naturally occurring oils.[14]

Several large studies[15][16][17][18] indicate a link between the consumption of high amounts of trans fat and coronary heart disease, and possibly some other diseases. The United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute and the American Heart Association (AHA) all have recommended limiting the intake of trans fats.

Cooking with oil

Heating an oil changes its characteristics. Oils that are healthy at room temperature can become unhealthy when heated above certain temperatures, so when choosing a cooking oil, it is important to match the oil's heat tolerance with the temperature which will be used.[19] Deep-fat frying temperatures are commonly in the range of 170–190 °C (338–374 °F), less commonly, lower temperatures ≥ 130 °C (266 °F) are used.[20]

Palm oil contains more saturated fats than canola oil, corn oil, linseed oil, soybean oil, safflower oil, and sunflower oil. Therefore, palm oil can withstand deep frying at higher temperatures and is resistant to oxidation compared to high-polyunsaturated vegetable oils.[21] Since about 1900, palm oil has been increasingly incorporated into food by the global commercial food industry because it remains stable in deep frying, or in baking at very high temperatures,[22][23] and for its high levels of natural antioxidants.[24]

The following oils are suitable for high-temperature frying due to their high smoke point above 230 °C (446 °F):

Less aggressive frying temperatures are frequently used.[26] A quality frying oil has a bland flavor, at least 200 °C (392 °F) smoke and 315 °C (599 °F) flash points, with maximums of 0.1% free fatty acids and 3% linolenic acid.[27] Those oils with higher linolenic fractions are avoided due to polymerization or gumming marked by increases in viscosity with age.[26] Olive oil resists thermal degradation and has been used as a frying oil for thousands of years.[26]

Storing and keeping oil

All oils degrade in response to heat, light, and oxygen.[28] To delay the onset of rancidity, a blanket of an inert gas, usually nitrogen, is applied to the vapor space in the storage container immediately after production – a process called tank blanketing.

In a cool, dry place, oils have greater stability, but may thicken, although they will soon return to liquid form if they are left at room temperature. To minimize the degrading effects of heat and light, oils should be removed from cold storage just long enough for use.

Refined oils high in monounsaturated fats, such as macadamia oil,[28] keep up to a year, while those high in polyunsaturated fats, such as soybean oil, keep about six months. Rancidity tests have shown that the shelf life of walnut oil is about 3 months, a period considerably shorter than the best before date shown on labels.[28]

By contrast, oils high in saturated fats, such as avocado oil, have relatively long shelf lives and can be safely stored at room temperature, as the low polyunsaturated fat content facilitates stability.[28]

Types and characteristics

Cooking oils are composed of various fractions of fatty acids.[29] For the purpose of frying food, oils high in monounsaturated or saturated fats are generally popular, while oils high in polyunsaturated fats are less desirable.[20] High oleic acid oils include almond, macadamia, olive, pecan, pistachio, and high-oleic cultivars of safflower and sunflower.[30]

Oils and fats Saturated fatty acids MUFA PUFA
4:0 6:0 8:0 10:0 12:0 14:0 16:0 18:0 20:0 22:0 24:0 16:1 18:1 20:1 22:1 18:2 18:3
 
Almond[31] 6.5 1.7 0.6 69.4 17.4
Almond[32] 1 5 77 17
Apricot kernel[31] 5.8 0.5 1.5 58.5 29.3
Avocado[31] 10.9 0.7 2.7 67.9 12.5 1
Basil[33] 8.5 11 24.5 54.5
Brazil nut[34] 0.1 13.5 11.8 0.5 0.3 29.1 0.2 42.8 0.2
Butter[35] 5.3 2.8 1.6 3.1 3.4 10.8 28.1 10.6 1.4 20.8 0.3 2
Butter, anhydrous[31] 3.2 1.9 1.1 2.5 2.8 10 26.2 12.1 2.2 25 2.2 1.4
Canola[31] 4.3 2.1 0.7 0.3 0.2 61.7 1.3 19 9.1
Canola[36] 3.9 1.9 0.6 0.2 0.2 0.2 64.1 1 18.7 9.2
Cashew[33] 11.5 9 61 17
Cocoa butter[31] 0.1 25.4 33.2 0.2 32.6 2.8 0.1
Coconut[37] 0.4 7.3 6.6 47.8 18.1 8.9 2.7 0.1 6.4 1.6
Corn[31] 10.6 1.8 0.4 0.1 27.3 0.1 53.5 1.2
Cottonseed[38] 0.9 25.5 2.5 0.3 0.2 0.6 17.7 52.2 0.1
Grapeseed[31] 0.1 6.7 2.7 0.3 15.8 69.6 0.1
Hazelnut[34] 0.1 5.8 2.7 0.2 0.3 79.3 0.2 10.4 0.5
Hemp[33] 6.5 3 11.5 56.5 20
Lard[39] 0.1 0.2 1.4 24.9 14.1 2.8 43.1 10.7 1
Macadamia nut[34] 1 8.4 3.2 2.3 17.3 65.1 2.2 2.3 0.1
Mustard[31] 1.4 3.8 1.1 0.2 11.6 6.2 41.2 15.3 5.9
Olive[31] 11.3 2 0.4 0.1 1.3 71.3 0.3 9.8 0.8
Olive, Virgin[40] 13.8 2.8 0.1 1.9 69 12.2
Palm kernel[41] 0.3 3.6 3.3 48 16.7 8.5 2.1 14.9 2.5
Palm[42] 0.3 1.1 43.5 4.3 0.2 0.2 39.8 10.2 0.3
Palm[31] 0.1 1 43.5 4.3 0.3 36.6 0.1 9.1 0.2
Peanut[36] 0.1 11.6 3.1 1.5 3 1 0.2 46.5 1.4 31.4
Rapeseed[29] 31 23 19
Rapeseed[40] 4.8 1.9 60.5 22.5 9.5
Rice bran[43] 0.4 19.8 1.9 0.9 0.3 0.2 42.3 0.5 31.9 1.2
Safflower, high oleic[31] 0.1 4.9 1.9 0.4 0.3 0.1 74.8 0.3 12.7 0.1
Safflower[44] 7.3 2.5 13.6 75.7 0.5
Sesame[45] 0.1 9.2 5.8 0.7 0.2 0.1 40.6 0.2 42.6 0.3
Soybean[31] 10.5 4.4 0.4 0.4 22.6 0.2 51 6.8
Soybean[36] 0.1 11 4 0.3 0.1 0.1 23.4 53.2 7.8
Soybean, low linolenic[38] 10.8 4.5 0.4 0.4 26.1 55.4 2
Soybean, high oleic[note 1] 7.3 3.4 0.4 0.4 85.1 1.3 2
Sunflower[36] 0.5 0.2 6.8 4.7 0.4 0.1 18.6 68.2 0.5
Sunflower, high linoleic[31] 5.9 4.5 19.5 65.7
Sunflower, linoleic[31] 5.4 3.5 0.2 45.3 39.8 0.2
Sunflower, mid-oleic[31] 0.1 4.2 3.6 0.3 0.8 0.1 57 0.2 28.9
Sunflower, high oleic[31] 0.1 3.7 4.3 1 0.1 82.6 1 3.6 0.2
Sunflower, high oleic I[46] 5 3 82 9
Sunflower, high oleic II[46] 5 4 90 1
Tallow, beef[31] 0.9 3.7 24.9 18.9 4.2 36 0.3 3.1 0.6
Tallow, mutton[31] 3.8 21.5 19.5 2.3 37.6 5.5 2.3
Walnut[34] 0.1 6.7 2.3 0.1 0.2 21 0.2 57.5 11.6
[47] Parts per hundred
  1. ↑ Warner and Gupta reported fishy and stale flavors in potato chips fried in this oil and attributed them to the unusual linoleic:linolenic acids ratio.[38]

Smoke point

The smoke point is marked by "a continuous wisp of smoke."[48] It is the temperature at which an oil starts to burn, leading to a burnt flavor in the foods being prepared and degradation of nutrients and phytochemicals characteristic of the oil.[49]

Above the smoke point are flash and fire points.[48] The flash point is the temperature at which oil vapors will ignite but aren't produced in sufficient quantities to stay lit. The flash point generally occurs at about 275–330 °C (527–626 °F).[50] The fire point is the temperature at which hot oil produces sufficient vapors they will catch on fire and burn.[50] As frying hours increase, all these temperature points decrease.[50] They depend more on an oil's acidity than fatty-acid profile.[51]

The smoke point of cooking oils varies generally in association with how an oil is refined: a higher smoke point results from removal of impurities and free fatty acids.[49] Residual solvent remaining from the refining process may decrease the smoke point.[51] It has been reported to increase with the inclusion of antioxidants (BHA, BHT, and TBHQ). For these reasons, the published smoke points of oils may vary.[51]

Fat Quality Smoke Point
Almond oil221°C430°F[52]
Avocado oilRefined270°C520°F[53][54]
Mustard oil250°C480°F[55]
Butter150°C302°F[56]
Canola oil 220-230°C[57]428–446°F
Canola oil (Rapeseed)Expeller press190-232°C375-450°F[58]
Canola oil (Rapeseed)Refined204°C400°F
Canola oil (Rapeseed)Unrefined107°C 225°F
Castor oilRefined200°C[59]392°F
Coconut oilRefined, dry204°C400°F[60]
Coconut oilUnrefined, dry expeller pressed, virgin177°C350°F[60]
Corn oil 230-238°C[61]446-460°F
Corn oilUnrefined178°C[59]352°F
Cottonseed oilRefined, bleached, deodorized220-230°C[62]428–446 °F
Flaxseed oilUnrefined107°C225°F[54]
Lard190°C374°F[56]
Olive oilRefined199-243°C390-470°F[63]
Olive oilVirgin210°C[59]410°F
Olive oilExtra virgin, low acidity, high quality207°C 405°F[54][64]
Olive oilExtra virgin190°C 374°F[64]
Olive oilExtra virgin 160°C 320°F[54]
Palm oilDifractionated235°C[65]455°F
Peanut oilRefined 232°C[54] 450°F
Peanut oil 229°C[66] 445°F
Peanut oil 227°C[54] 441°F
Peanut oil Unrefined 160°C[54] 320°F
Rice bran oilRefined213°C[43]415°F
Sesame oilUnrefined177°C350°F[54]
Sesame oilSemirefined232°C450°F[54]
Soybean oil 234°C[67]453°F
Sunflower oil Neutralized, dewaxed, bleached & deodorized 252-254°C[68] 486–489°F
Sunflower oil Semirefined 232°C[54] 450°F
Sunflower oil 227°C[54] 441°F
Sunflower oilUnrefined, first cold-pressed, raw107°C[69] 225°F
Sunflower oil, high oleicRefined232°C 450°F[54]
Sunflower oil, high oleicUnrefined160°C 320°F[54]
Vegetable oil blendRefined220°C[64] 428°F

Oils are extracted from nuts, seeds, olives, grains or legumes by extraction using industrial chemicals or by mechanical processes. Expeller pressing is a chemical-free process that collects oils from a source using a mechanical press with minimal heat. Cold-pressed oils are extracted under a controlled temperature setting usually below 105 °C (221 °F) intended to preserve naturally occurring phytochemicals, such as polyphenols, plant sterols and vitamin E which collectively affect color, flavor, aroma and nutrient value.[49]

Type of
oil or fat		 SFA MUFA PUFA Omega- Smoke point

[70][71]

 Uses
3 6
Almond 8% 66% 26% 0 17% 221 °C (430 °F) Baking, sauces, flavoring
Avocado oil 12% 74% 14% 0.95% 12% 271 °C (520 °F) Frying, sautéing, dipping oil, salad oil
Butter 66% 30% 4% 0.3% 2.7% 150 °C (302 °F) Cooking, baking, condiment, sauces, flavoring
Butter, clarified, Ghee 65% 32% 3% 0 0 190–250 °C (374–482 °F) Deep frying, cooking, sautéing, condiment, flavoring
Canola oil 6% 62% 32% 9.1% 18% 225 °C (437 °F)[57] Frying, baking, salad dressings
Coconut oil (virgin) 92% 6% 2% 0 1.8% 177 °C (351 °F) Cooking, tropical cuisine, beauty products
Corn oil 13% 25% 62% 1.1% 53% 235 °C (455 °F)[72] Frying, baking, salad dressings, margarine, shortening
Cottonseed oil 24% 26% 50% 0.2% 50% 216 °C (421 °F) Margarine, shortening, salad dressings, commercially fried products
Diacylglycerol (DAG) oil 3.05% 37.95% 59% 0 - 215 °C (419 °F) Frying, baking, salad oil
Flaxseed oil, Linseed oil[73] 11% 21% 68% 53% 13% 107 °C (225 °F) Salad dressings, nutritional supplement
Grapeseed oil 12% 17% 71% 0.1% 69% 204 °C (399 °F) Cooking, salad dressings, margarine
Hemp oil 9% 12% 79% 18% 55% 165 °C (329 °F) Cooking, salad dressings
Lard 41% 47% 2% 1% 10% 138–201 °C (280–394 °F) Baking, frying
Macadamia oil 12.5% 84% 3.5% 0 2.8% 210 °C (410 °F) Cooking, frying, deep frying, salads, dressings. A slightly nutty odour.
Margarine (hard) 80% 14% 6% 2% 22% 150 °C (302 °F) Cooking, baking, condiment
Margarine (soft) 20% 47% 33% 2.4% 23% 150–160 °C (302–320 °F) Cooking, baking, condiment
Mustard oil 13% 60% 21% 5.9% 15% 254 °C (489 °F) Cooking, frying, deep frying, salads, dressings. Very clean flavoured & palatable.
Olive oil (extra virgin) 14% 73% 11% 0.7% 9.8% 190 °C (374 °F) Cooking, salad oils, margarine
Olive oil (virgin) 14% 73% 11% 0.7% 9.8% 215 °C (419 °F) Cooking, salad oils, margarine
Olive oil (refined) 14% 73% 11% 0 0 225 °C (437 °F) Sautee, stir frying, deep frying, cooking, salad oils, margarine
Olive oil (extra light) 14% 73% 11% 0 0 242 °C (468 °F) Sautee, stir frying, frying, deep frying, cooking, salad oils, margarine
Palm oil 52% 38% 10% 0.2% 9.1% 230 °C (446 °F) Frying,[74] cooking, flavoring, vegetable oil, shortening
Peanut oil (groundnut) 18% 49% 33% 0 31% 231 °C (448 °F) Frying, cooking, salad oils, margarine
Pumpkin seed oil 8% 36% 57% 0% 64% 121 °C (250 °F) Salad oils
Rice bran oil 20% 47% 33% 1.6% 33% 213 °C (415 °F)[43] Cooking, frying, deep frying, salads, dressings. Very clean flavoured & palatable.
Safflower oil (high oleic)[75][76] 6% 75% 13% 242 °C (468 °F)[72] Frying, cooking
Safflower oil (linoleic)[77] 6% 14% 75% 242 °C (468 °F)[72] Cooking, salad dressings, margarine
Sesame oil (unrefined) 14% 43% 43% 0.3 41% 177 °C (351 °F) Cooking
Sesame oil (semi-refined) 14% 43% 43% 0.3 41% 232 °C (450 °F) Cooking, deep frying
Soybean oil 15% 24% 61% 6.7% 50% 240 °C (464 °F)[72] Cooking, salad dressings, vegetable oil, margarine, shortening
Sunflower oil (high oleic, refined)[78] 9% 82% 9% 0.2% 3.6% 244 °C (471 °F)[72] Frying, cooking[79]
Sunflower oil (linoleic, refined)[78] 11% 20% 69% 0% 56% 240 °C (464 °F)[72] Cooking, salad dressings, margarine, shortening
Sunflower oil (mid-oleic, refined, NuSun)[78] 9% 65% 26% 211 °C (412 °F)[72] Commercial food manufacturing
Tea seed oil[80] 22% 60% 18% 0.7% 22% 252 °C (486 °F) Cooking, salad dressings, stir frying, frying, margarine
Walnut oil (semi-refined) 9% 23% 63% 10% 53% 204 °C (399 °F)[81] Salad dressings, added to cold dishes to enhance flavor
[82]

Cooking oil extraction and refinement

Olive oil production in Croatia

Cooking oil extraction and refinement are separate processes. Extraction first removes the oil, typically from a seed, nut or fruit. Refinement then alters the appearance, texture, taste, smell, or stability of the oil to meet buyer expectations.

Extraction

There are three broad types of oil extraction:

In large-scale industrial oil extraction you will often see some combination of pressing, chemical extraction and/or centrifuging in order to extract the maximum amount of oil possible.[93]

Refinement

Cooking oil can either be unrefined, or refined using one or more of the following refinement processes (in any combination):

Filtering, a non-chemical process which screens out larger particles, could be considered a step in refinement, although it doesn't alter the state of the oil.

Most large-scale commercial cooking oil refinement will involve all of these steps in order to achieve a product that's uniform in taste, smell and appearance, and has a longer shelf life.[93] Cooking oil intended for the health food market will often be unrefined, which can result in a less stable product but minimizes exposure to high temperatures and chemical processing.

Waste cooking oil

A bin for spent cooking oil in Austin, Texas, USA, managed by a recycling company.

Proper disposal of used cooking oil is an important waste-management concern. Oil can congeal on pipes provoking blockages.[95]

Because of this, cooking oil should never be dumped in the kitchen sink or in the toilet bowl. The proper way to dispose of oil is to put it in a sealed non-recyclable container and discard it with regular garbage.[96] Placing the container of oil in the refrigerator to harden also makes disposal easier and less messy.

Recycling

Cooking oil can be recycled. It can be used as animal feed, directly as fuel, and to produce biodiesel,[97] soap, and other industrial products.

In the recycling industry, used cooking oil recovered from restaurants and food-processing industries (typically from deep fryers or griddles) is called recycled vegetable oil (RVO), used vegetable oil (UVO), waste vegetable oil (WVO), or yellow grease.[98]

Yellow grease is used to feed livestock, and to make soap, make-up, clothes, rubber, detergents, and biodiesel fuel.[99][100]

Used cooking oil, besides being converted to biodiesel, can be used directly in modified diesel engines and for heating.

Grease traps or interceptors collect fats and oils from kitchen sinks and floor drains which would othewise clog sewer lines and interfere with septic systems and sewage treatment. The collected product is called brown grease in the recycling industry.[98] Brown grease is contaminated with rotted food solids and considered unsuitable for re-use in most applications.

Adulteration

Gutter oil and trench oil are terms used in China to describe recycled oil processed to resemble virgin oil, but containing toxic contaminants and sold illegally for cooking; its origin is frequently brown grease from garbage.[101]

In Kenya, thieves sell transformer oil stolen from electric transformers to operators of roadside food stalls for use in deep frying, suitable for prolonged use longer than regular cooking oil, but a threat to consumer health due to the presence of PCBs.[102]

Notes

    References

    1. ↑ "Dietary fats explained". Retrieved May 4, 2012.
    2. ↑ "Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2005; Key Recommendations for the General Population". US Department of Health and Human Services and Department of Agriculture. 2005.
    3. ↑ Yanai H, Katsuyama H, Hamasaki H, Abe S, Tada N, Sako A (2015). "Effects of Dietary Fat Intake on HDL Metabolism". J Clin Med Res. 7 (3): 145–9. PMC 4285059 Freely accessible. PMID 25584098. doi:10.14740/jocmr2030w.
    4. ↑ Clarke, R; Frost, C; Collins, R; Appleby, P; Peto, R (1997). "Dietary lipids and blood cholesterol: quantitative meta-analysis of metabolic ward studies". BMJ. 314 (7074): 112–7. PMC 2125600 Freely accessible. PMID 9006469. doi:10.1136/bmj.314.7074.112.
    5. ↑ Mensink, RP; Zock, PL; Kester, AD; Katan, MB (2003). "Effects of dietary fatty acids and carbohydrates on the ratio of serum total to HDL cholesterol and on serum lipids and apolipoproteins: a meta-analysis of 60 controlled trials". Am J Clin Nutr. 77 (5): 1146–55. PMID 12716665.
    6. ↑ Jakobsen, M. U; O'Reilly, E. J; Heitmann, B. L; Pereira, M. A; Balter, K.; Fraser, G. E; Goldbourt, U.; Hallmans, G.; et al. (2009). "Major types of dietary fat and risk of coronary heart disease: a pooled analysis of 11 cohort studies". American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 89 (5): 1425–32. PMC 2676998 Freely accessible. PMID 19211817. doi:10.3945/ajcn.2008.27124.
    7. 1 2 Katan, Martijn B.; Mozaffarian, Dariush; Micha, Renata; Wallace, Sarah (2010). Katan, Martijn B., ed. "Effects on Coronary Heart Disease of Increasing Polyunsaturated Fat in Place of Saturated Fat: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials". PLoS Medicine. 7 (3): e1000252. PMC 2843598 Freely accessible. PMID 20351774. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1000252.
    8. ↑ "Dietary fats: Know which types to choose". Mayo Clinic Staff. 2015.
    9. ↑ "Choose foods low in saturated fat". National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI), NIH Publication No. 97-4064. 1997.
    10. ↑ Kabagambe, EK; Baylin, A; Ascherio, A & Campos, H (November 2005). "The Type of Oil Used for Cooking Is Associated with the Risk of Nonfatal Acute Myocardial Infarction in Costa Rica". Journal of Nutrition (135 ed.). 135 (11): 2674–2679. PMID 16251629.
    11. ↑ Food and nutrition board, institute of medicine of the national academies (2005). Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids (Macronutrients). National Academies Press. p. 423. ISBN 0-309-08537-3.
    12. ↑ Food and nutrition board, institute of medicine of the national academies (2005). Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids (Macronutrients). National Academies Press. p. 504. ISBN 0-309-08537-3.
    13. ↑ "Trans fat: Avoid this cholesterol double whammy". Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research (MFMER). Retrieved 2007-12-10.
    14. ↑ Mozaffarian, Dariush; Katan, Martijn B.; Ascherio, Alberto; Stampfer, Meir J.; Willett, Walter C. (2006). "Trans Fatty Acids and Cardiovascular Disease". New England Journal of Medicine. 354 (15): 1601–113. PMID 16611951. doi:10.1056/NEJMra054035.
    15. ↑ Willett, WC; Stampfer, MJ; Manson, JE; Colditz, GA; Speizer, FE; Rosner, BA; Sampson, LA; Hennekens, CH (1993). "Intake of trans fatty acids and risk of coronary heart disease among women". Lancet. 341 (8845): 581–5. PMID 8094827. doi:10.1016/0140-6736(93)90350-P.
    16. ↑ Hu, Frank B.; Stampfer, Meir J.; Manson, Joann E.; Rimm, Eric; Colditz, Graham A.; Rosner, Bernard A.; Hennekens, Charles H.; Willett, Walter C. (1997). "Dietary Fat Intake and the Risk of Coronary Heart Disease in Women". New England Journal of Medicine. 337 (21): 1491–9. PMID 9366580. doi:10.1056/NEJM199711203372102.
    17. ↑ Hayakawa, Kyoko; Linko, Yu-Yen; Linko, Pekka (2000). "The role of trans fatty acids in human nutrition". Starch - Stärke. 52 (6–7): 229–35. doi:10.1002/1521-379X(200007)52:6/7<229::AID-STAR229>3.0.CO;2-G.
    18. ↑ The Nurses' Health Study (NHS)
    19. ↑ Orna Izakson. "Oil right: choose wisely for heart-healthy cooking - Eating Right". E: The Environmental Magazine.
    20. 1 2 Bouchon, Pedro (2009). "Chapter 5 - Understanding Oil Absorption During Deep-Fat Frying" (PDF). Advances in Food and Nutrition Research. 57: 219. ISSN 1043-4526. doi:10.1016/S1043-4526(09)57005-2.
    21. ↑ De Marco, Elena; Savarese, Maria; Parisini, Cristina; Battimo, Ilaria; Falco, Salvatore; Sacchi, Raffaele (2007). "Frying performance of a sunflower/palm oil blend in comparison with pure palm oil" (PDF). European Journal of Lipid Science and Technology. 109 (3): 237–246. doi:10.1002/ejlt.200600192.
    22. ↑ Che Man, YB; Liu, J.L.; Jamilah, B.; Rahman, R. Abdul (1999). "Quality changes of RBD palm olein, soybean oil and their blends during deep-fat frying". Journal of Food Lipids. 6 (3): 181–193. doi:10.1111/j.1745-4522.1999.tb00142.x.
    23. ↑ Matthäus, Bertrand (2007). "Use of palm oil for frying in comparison with other high-stability oils". European Journal of Lipid Science and Technology. 109 (4): 400–409. doi:10.1002/ejlt.200600294.
    24. ↑ Sundram, K; Sambanthamurthi, R; Tan, YA (2003). "Palm fruit chemistry and nutrition" (PDF). Asia Pacific journal of clinical nutrition. 12 (3): 355–62. PMID 14506001.
    25. ↑ "Smoke Points of Various Fats - Kitchen Notes - Cooking For Engineers". cookingforengineers.com. 2012. Retrieved July 3, 2012.
    26. 1 2 3 Boskou, Dimitrios (2010). "21 Frying Fats". Chemical and functional properties of food lipids (PDF). p. 429.
    27. ↑ Rossell, J.B. (1998). "Industrial frying process". Grasas y Aceites. 49 (3-4): 282–295.
    28. 1 2 3 4 Kochhar, S. Parkash; Henry, C. Jeya K. (2009-01-01). "Oxidative stability and shelf-life evaluation of selected culinary oils". International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition. 60 Suppl 7: 289–296. ISSN 1465-3478. PMID 19634067. doi:10.1080/09637480903103774.
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    30. ↑ The Lipid Handbook (2007), p. 4.
    31. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 "National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference Release 28". USDA.
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    34. 1 2 3 4 Vegetable Oils in Food Technology (2011), p. 329.
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    42. ↑ Sundram, K; Sambanthamurthi, R; Tan, YA (2003). "Palm fruit chemistry and nutrition" (PDF). Asia Pacific journal of clinical nutrition. 12 (3): 355–62. PMID 14506001.
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    44. ↑ Takeuchi, H.; Matsuo, T.; Tokuyama, K.; Shimomura, Y.; Suzuki, M. "Diet-induced thermogenesis is lower in rats fed a lard diet than in those fed a high oleic acid safflower oil diet, a safflower oil diet or a linseed oil diet." (PDF). The Journal of nutrition. 125 (4): 920.
    45. ↑ Vegetable Oils in Food Technology (2011), p. 293.
    46. 1 2 Vegetable Oils in Food Technology (2011), p. 148.
    47. ↑ "Fats and fatty acids".
    48. 1 2 Vegetable Oils in Food Technology (2011), p. 122.
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    50. 1 2 3 Vegetable Oils in Food Technology (2011), p. 90.
    51. 1 2 3 Vegetable Oils in Food Technology (2011), p. 149.
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    53. ↑ "Smoking Points of Fats and Oils." http://whatscookingamerica.net/Information/CookingOilTypes.htm
    54. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 "Smoke Point of Oils | Baseline of Health". Jonbarron.org. 2012-04-17. Retrieved 2016-05-28.
    55. ↑ "Mustard Oil" http://www.clovegarden.com/ingred/oi_mustz.html
    56. 1 2 The Culinary Institute of America (2011). The Professional Chef (9th ed.). Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-42135-2. OCLC 707248142.
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    60. 1 2 Nutiva, Coconut Oil Manufacturer, http://nutiva.com/introducing-nutiva-refined-coconut-oil/
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    63. ↑ "Olive Oil Smoke Point". Retrieved 2016-08-25.
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    65. ↑ (in Italian) Scheda tecnica dell'olio di palma bifrazionato PO 64.
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    68. ↑ Vegetable Oils in Food Technology (2011), p. 153.
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    71. ↑ Brown, Amy L. (2010). Understanding Food: Principles and Preparation. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing. p. 468. ISBN 0-538-73498-1. Retrieved 2011-01-16. The smoke point of an oil depends primarily on its free fatty acid content (FFA) and molecular weight. Through repeated use, as in a deep fryer, the oil accumulates food residues or by-products of the cooking process, that lower its smoke point further. The values shown in the table must therefore be taken as approximate, and are not suitable for accurate or scientific use
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    Further reading

    • Warner, K. (1999). "Impact of high-temperature food processing on fats and oils". Advances in experimental medicine and biology. 459: 67–77. PMID 10335369. doi:10.1007/978-1-4615-4853-9_5. 
    • Fox, R. (2001). Frying oils. In Kaarin Goodburn (Ed.) EU Food Law. Woodhead. pp. 195–224. ISBN 978-1-85573-557-6.
    Fats
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