Portuguese conquest of Goa

Capture of Goa
Map of Goa, in Linschoten's Itineraries, ca.1590.
Date December 10, 1510 Location Goa, India Result Portuguese victory Conquest of Goa by the Portuguese
Belligerents
Portuguese Empire	Bijapur Sultanate
Commanders and leaders
Afonso de Albuquerque Timoji	Ismail Adil Shah Pulad Khan
Strength
First attack: 1600 Portuguese[1] 220 Malabarese[1] 3000 fighting slaves[1] 23 ships 2000 men of Timoji Second attack 1680 Portuguese 34 ships[2]	First attack: over 40,000 men[3] Second attack 8-10,000 men 200 cannon[4]
Casualties and losses
First attack 200 Portuguese dead[5] Second attack 50 dead 300 wounded	First attack Unknown Second attack over 6,800 dead

The Portuguese conquest of Goa occurred when the governor of Portuguese India Afonso de Albuquerque captured the city in 1510. Goa was not among the cities Albuquerque had received orders to conquer: he had only been ordered by the Portuguese king to capture Hormuz, Aden and Malacca.^[6]

Background

On November the 4th 1509, Afonso de Albuquerque succeeded Dom Francisco de Almeida as Governor of the Portuguese State of India, after the arrival in India of the Marshal of Portugal Dom Fernando Coutinho, sent by King Manuel to enforce the orderly succession of Albuquerque to office.^[7] Unlike Almeida, Albuquerque realized that the Portuguese could take a more active role breaking Muslim supremacy in the Indian Ocean trade by taking control of three strategic chokepoints - Aden, Hormuz and Malacca. Albuquerque also understood the necessity of establishing a base of operations in lands directly controlled by the Portuguese crown and not just in territory granted by allied rulers such as Cochin and Cannanore.^[8]

Portuguese preparations

Shortly after a failed attack on Calicut in 1509, Albuquerque was replenishing his troops in Cochin and organizing an expedition with which to attack the Suez in the Red Sea, where the Mamluks were believed, correctly, to be preparing a new fleet to send to India against the Portuguese. The Portuguese Marshall Dom Fernando Coutinho had been killed in Calicut, fortuitously leaving Albuquerque with full, uncontested command of Portuguese forces in India. The Portuguese force was composed of 23 ships, 1200 Portuguese soldiers, 400 Portuguese sailors, 220 Malabarese auxiliaries from Cochin and 3000 "fighting slaves".^[1] The expedition set sail for the Red Sea in late January 1510, in February 6th anchored by Canannore and in the 13th sighted Mount of Eli.^[9]

By the Mount of Eli, Albuquerque summoned his captains to his flagship, the Flor de la Mar, where he revealed the objective of the expedition: He had orders from King Manuel I to subjugate Hormuz, but seeing as the Mamluks were assembling a fleet at the Suez, he considered diverting from the original course of action and destroy it before it was ready.^[10]

Thereafter, the expedition resumed its course and anchored by the city of Honavar, where Albuquerque was approached by an acquaintance of the Portuguese: the powerful Malabarese privateer, Timoji (Thimayya). Timoji claimed to Albuquerque that it would be dangerous to leave for the Red Sea, as within the nearby city of Goa the remnants of the Mamluk expedition destroyed in the Battle of Diu were regrouping and reffiting new ships, but the city was scarcely defended as Sultan of Bijapur Yusuf Adil Shah had recently died and his heir Ismail Adil Shah was young and inexperienced. Knowing of the discontent among the Hindus of Goa after falling to the Muslim rulers of Bijapur in 1496, Timoji proposed to Albuquerque his support in capturing the city.^[6] Timoji's timely proposition was not entirely coincidental, as Albuquerque had already received in Cochin envoys of Timoji requesting a rendezvous.^[11]

Upon assembling with his captains, Albuquerque convinced them that it was crucial that they attacked Goa.^[12]

The first conquest of Goa

Afonso de Albuquerque

In February the 16th, the Portuguese armada sailed into the deep waters of the Mandovi river. Supported by 2000 men of Timoji, the Portuguese landed troops commanded by Dom António de Noronha and assaulted the fort of Pangim, defended by a Turkish mercenary Yusuf Gurgij ahead of 400 men. Yusuf was wounded and retreated to the city and the Portuguese captured the fort along with several iron artillery pieces. At Pangim Albuquerque received envoys from the most important figures of Goa, and proposed religious freedom and lower taxes should they refuse to aid the Muslims. Thereafter they declared their full support towards the Portuguese and Albuquerque formally occupied Goa on February 17th 1510 with no resistance.^[13]

In the city, the Portuguese found over 100 horses belonging to the ruler of Bijapur, 25 elephants and partially finished new ships, confirming Timoji's information about the enemy's preparations. For his assistance, he was nominated tanadar-mor (the head tax-collector and representative of indigenous peoples) of Goa .^[14]

Albuquerque reaffirmed that the city not be sacked and the inhabitants unharmed, under the penalty of death. He gathered the goldsmiths and money changers of Goa to create a mint and ordered that the old currency be molten down to golden Portuguese cruzados, silver vinténs and copper coins. They were distributed along a parade through the city streets.^[15]

Expecting a retaliation from the Sultan of Bijapur, Albuquerque began organizing the city's defences. The city's walls were repaired, the moat was expanded and filled with water and storehouses for weapons and supplies were built. The ships were to be finished and pressed into Portuguese service, and the five fording points into the island - Banastarim, Naroá, Agaçaim, Passo Seco and Daugim - were defended by Portuguese and Malabarese troops, supported by several artillery pieces.^[16]

At the same time, Albuquerque sent friar Luiz do Salvador ahead of an embassy to the court of the neighbouring Hindu Vijayanagara Empire, hoping to secure an alliance against Bijapur.^[17]

Adil Shah's counterattack

Unbeknownst to Albuquerque, the Adil Shah had just agreed on a truce with the Vijayanagara Empire, and could divert much more troops into recapturing the city than expected. To that effect, he sent a Turkish general, Pulad Khan, ahead of 40,000 troops, which included many experienced Persian and Turkic mercenaries, that defeated Timoja's troops on the mainland. Ismail Adil Shah then set up his royal tent by the Benastarim ford, awaiting for the monsoon to trap the Portuguese before giving Pulad Khan the order to assault the island.

Albuquerque was informed of this plan through the Portuguese renegade João Machado,^[18] who was now a prestigious captain in the Adil Shah's service, though he remained Christian. He was sent to convince his fellow countrymen to surrender or flee. Trusting the strength of his defensive position, Albuquerque rejected Machado's propositions.^[19] Machado also told Albuquerque that Ismail mantained contact with the Muslims within the city, who informed him of Portuguese numbers and movements.^[20]

With the coming of the monsoon rains however, the Portuguese situation became critical: the tropical weather claimed a great amount of Portuguese lives, foodstuffs deteriorated and the Portuguese were stretched too thin to hold back the Muslim army. Under these conditions, Pulad Khan launched a major assault on May 11, across the Banastarim ford at low tide amidst a heavy storm, quickly overwhelming the small number of Portuguese troops. As their defenses crumbled, a Muslim revolt broke out in the outskirts of Goa while the Portuguese hurriedly retreated into the city walls with the aid of their Hindu allies but abandoning several artillery pieces by the riverside.^[21]

The following day, Pulad Khan ordered an assault against the city but was repelled. Only now Albuquerque knew from friar Luiz of the truce between Bijapur and Vijayanagara, and spent the rest of May preparing a retreat. Albuquerque refused to set fire to the city since it would denounce their retreat to the besiegers and instead ordered a great amount of spices and copper to be scattered on the streets to delay the enemy's advance. Before leaving however, he had Timoji with fifty of his men execute the Muslim inhabitants within the citadel, sparing only several women which he took onto his ships. Before daybreak of May 31, the remaining 500 Portuguese embarked under enemy fire, covered by a small number of Portuguese soldiers holding back the advance of enemy troops that breached the city walls.^[22] Ismail then solemnly retook possession the city, at the sound of trumpets.^[23]

Trapped in the river

Mandovi river seen from Ribandar

On June 1st, the ships sailed away from the riverfront of Goa to the mouth of the Mandovi river, unable to leave for high seas due to the monsoon storms. The expedition was now trapped on their own ships within the rivermouth, and for the following three months would endure a severe rationing of supplies to the point of cooking rats and leather, a continuous Muslim bombardment and the harsh weather conditions, all which threatened to crush the expedition.

The riverwater was muddy, making fish hard to catch and the water undrikable though the heavy rain permitted some of the drinking water to be replenished. The Portuguese also suffered from the constant bombardment from artillery pieces on shore which, though erratic, forced them to frequently relocate the ships and avoid leaving out onto the decks. They avoided replying, to save ammunition.^[24] According to João de Barros: "Thus by hunger and thirst on one part and by war, lightning and Winter thunderstorm on another, the common folk was so stricken that some were driven to desperation".^[25]

Many jumped overboard and defected, informing the enemy of the scarcity in the armada.^[26] The Adil Shah however, feared the renewal of hostilities with Vijayanagar at any moment, and wished to conclude a truce with the Portuguese. He sent an envoy proposing peace and the nearby town of Cintacora. Albuquerque received him with an abundant display of food and wine but rejected Ismail's proposal.

The governor would run through every ship, raising morale and instilling discipline, but his relation with his captains was degrading rapidly after his popular nephew, Dom António de Noronha, died in a sortie on land. One episode was relevant, as one fidalgo Rui Dias had been disobeying the governor's orders, sneaking out of his ship to meet with the women that Timoja had captured, and were locked in a cabin on the governor's own flagship. Upon finding of this blatant disobedience, Albuquerque ordered him to be immediately hanged. With the noose around his neck, mutiny sparked among the ranks of Portuguese fidalgos in the armada - who objected not so much his execution but the fact that he was being hanged and not beheaded as befitted a fellow nobleman.^[27] Albuquerque was, however, resolute. Dias was hanged and several of the rebellious captains arrested, though only for a few days.^[28]

Interlude

Angediva Island

By August the 15th, the armada finally sailed out of the Mandovi towards Cannanore and the next day reached Angediva Island to fetch water. There, they encountered Diogo Mendes de Vasconcelos ahead of an expedition of 4 ships and 300 men, sent by King Manuel I to trade directly with Malacca, based on the assumption that Diogo Lopes de Sequeira had been successful in opening trade with that city the previous year. As the head of Portuguese forces in India, Albuquerque knew that he had not, and persuaded Vasconcelos to, reluctantly, assist him capture Goa instead.^[29]

Passing by Honavar, Albuquerque knew from Timoja and his informants that Ismail had left Goa to fight Vijayanagar at Balagate and an insurrection had taken place, killing many officers of the garrison left behind.^[29]

The Portuguese fortress of Cannanore

At Cannanore they careened and refitted the ships, and were joined by the 12-ship squadron of Duarte de Lemos coming from Socotra along with the annual fleet of carracks coming from Portugal commanded by Gonçalo de Sequeira, with orders to relieve Lemos of his command and turn his ships over to the governor. The Portuguese now counted 1,680 men and 34 ships, among naus, caravels and galleys - though Gonçalo de Sequeira stayed behind with his ships to oversee the loading of the pepper and return to Portugal with Duarte de Lemos.^[30]

Cochin

Before leaving for Goa, Albuquerque was alerted by the Raja of Cochin, a faithful ally of the Portuguese, of an impending power dispute between him and his cousin and requested his assistance. The annual provisioning of pepper bound to Portugal depended on the King of Cochin, and Albuquerque quickly sailed to his aid. Through a swift display of force the conflicting prince was sent to exhile and the King of Cochin secured.^[31]

Honavar

At Honavar the Portuguese once more joined forces with Timoji, who informed Albuquerque that Ismail had left a considerable garrison behind, about 8,000-10,000 "whites" (Persian and Turkic mercenaries) supported by native infantry. Timoji could provide 4,000 men and 60 foists (light galleys) of his own, while the king of Honavar proposed to send 15,000 men by land.^[30]

Second conquest of Goa

On November 24, the Portuguese again sailed into the Mandovi and anchored by Ribandar, where they landed some men commanded by Dom João de Lima to scout the city's defences. Albuquerque summoned a council in which he expressed his intentions to storm the city in a three-pronged attack and divided his forces accordingly: one squadron commanded by himself, who would attack the city defences from the west, where the shipyards were located; the other two commanded by Vasconcelos and Manuel de Lacerda would assault the city's riverside gates to the north, where the main enemy force was expected to be concentraded.^[32]

By daybreak of November 25th, day of Saint Catherine, the landing began, with the Portuguese galleys moving in first to bombard the riverfront clear of enemies for the landing boats. Once ashore, the heavily armoured Portuguese infantry, led by the steel-clad fidalgos of the squadrons of Vasconcelos and Lacerda assaulted the outer defences around the riverside gates and, resorting to hand thrown clay bombs, quickly threw the defenders into disarray. The Portuguese managed to prevent the gates from closing with their pikes and thus breached into the city's fortified perimeter amidst their fleeing enemies. This initial success was followed by some confusion, as both the Portuguese and the defenders on both sides of walls found themselves simultaneously trying to open and close the gates. A certain Fradique Fernandes managed to scale the walls with the assistance of his lance, and hoisted a banner shouting Portugal! Portugal! Vitória! Santa Catarina! adding to the defenders confusion. In a last-ditch effort to organize a defence, some of the defenders rallied around the palace of the Adil Shah, but they too were eventually shattered by a second Portuguese assault commanded by Vasconcelos, arriving at the sound of trumpets.^[33]

After five hours fighting, the defenders were now in a definitive rout, fleeing across the streets and away from the city along with many civilians - many of whom drowned trying to cross the narrow bridge over the moat in the ensuing flight, or were chased down by the Hindus of Goa.^[33]

Albuquerque, in the meantime, could not personally participate in the assault into the city, as the western defences of the city proved to be much stronger than expected. Nor did Timoji, who only arrived later. The governor then spent the rest of the day eliminating pockets of resistance within the city, and allowed the soldiers four days to sack it. The shipyards, warehouses and artillery reverted to the Crown and the property of Hindus was spared, but the Muslims were all killed under the governor's explicit orders, and to avoid an outbreak of plague, their bodies thrown "to the lizards" in the river.^[33]

The Portuguese suffered 50 dead and 300 wounded in the attack - mainly due to arrows - while Albuquerque estimated that about 800 "Turks" and over 6,000 "moors" among civilians and fighting men had perished.^[34]

Defence of Goa

With the city now firmly in Portuguese hands, on December 1, 1510 Albuquerque resumed its administration and organizing its defence. The old castle was rebuilt in European fashion, under the supervision of architect Thomaz Fernandez, with 20 Portuguese stonemasons and many paid local labourers at his disposal.^[35] It was garrisoned with 400 Portuguese soldiers, while a corps of 80 mounted crossbowmen served as watchmen and gateguards of the city, commanded by the captain of Goa Rodrigo Rabelo, who received a bodyguard of 20 halberdiers. Francisco Pantoja was nominated alcaide-mor (chief magistrate) of the city. A riverguard was also created, with two tall ships, a galley, a galleot and two brigantines.^[36]

Timoji regained his post as tanadar-mor but his lowly caste as well as his mistreatment of underlings caused tensions within the Hindu society, and so he was replaced with his rival Melrao, who had at his disposal 5,000 men to assist with the defence.^[36]

With an effective defensive system in place, Diogo Mendes de Vasconcelos requested the governor permission to proceed to Malacca, which Albuquerque refused. Vasconcelos then attempted mutiny and to sail without permission, for which he was arrested and his pilots hanged. Albuquerque personally assumed the command of the expedition and in February 1511 left Goa towards Malacca.^[37]

For the duration of the following year, the city would come under siege by the reorganized forces of general Pulad Khan, who would occupy the island of Goa and construct a bridge and a fortress at Benastarim. Pulad Khan would be replaced with Rassul Khan but he was likewise unable to recapture the city. The return of Albuquerque the following year, in August 1512, with considerable reinforcements, saw the defeat of Rassul Khan, who finally agreed to sign a peace treaty, formally leaving Goa to the Portuguese.

Aftermath

Thereafter, Goa then supplanted Calicut in prosperity.^[38]

Albuquerque had captured Goa without royal orders, and was opposed by his captains in doing so. The king challenged the Portuguese establishment at Goa, but the council of the fidalgos finally confirmed the possession, to the displeasure of the king.^[6] The city of Goa nevertheless constituted a strong position that reinforced the strategic presence of the Portuguese in India.^[6]

The Portuguese did continue to have misgivings about their possessions in India, as they discussed in 1542 and 1570 whether they should abandon the Estado da Índia in order to better concentrate on the conquest of Morocco.^[6]

The Portuguese continued to rule these colonies, the Estado Português da Índia till India liberated them in December 1961 and established multi-party democracy.

See also

• History of Goa

Notes

References

• João Paulo de Oliveira e Costa, Vítor Luís Gaspar Rodrigues (2008) Campanhas de Afonso de Albuquerque: Conquista de Goa, 1510-1512 Lisbon, Tribuna da História.
• Geneviève Bouchon, (2014) Albuquerque: Le Lion des Mers d'Asie, Paris, Éditions Desjonquères.
• Gaspar Correia (1558-1563) Lendas da Índia, 1864 edition, Lisbon, Typographia da Academia Real das Sciencias de Lisboa.
• R.A. Bulhão Pato, H. Lopes Mendonça (1884) Cartas de Afonso de Albuquerque seguidas de documentos que as elucidam Lisbon
• Elaine Sanceau (1936) Indies Adventure: The Amazing Career of Afonso de Albuquerque, Captain-general and Governor of India (1509-1515), Blackie