Concurrent computing

Concurrent computing is a form of computing in which several computations are executed during overlapping time periods—concurrently—instead of sequentially (one completing before the next starts). This is a property of a system—this may be an individual program, a computer, or a network—and there is a separate execution point or "thread of control" for each computation ("process"). A concurrent system is one where a computation can advance without waiting for all other computations to complete.[1]

As a programming paradigm, concurrent computing is a form of modular programming, namely factoring an overall computation into subcomputations that may be executed concurrently. Pioneers in the field of concurrent computing include Edsger Dijkstra, Per Brinch Hansen, and C.A.R. Hoare.

Introduction

The concept of concurrent computing is frequently confused with the related but distinct concept of parallel computing,[2][3] although both can be described as "multiple processes executing during the same period of time". In parallel computing, execution occurs at the same physical instant: for example, on separate processors of a multi-processor machine, with the goal of speeding up computations—parallel computing is impossible on a (one-core) single processor, as only one computation can occur at any instant (during any single clock cycle).[lower-alpha 1] By contrast, concurrent computing consists of process lifetimes overlapping, but execution need not happen at the same instant. The goal here is to model processes in the outside world that happen concurrently, such as multiple clients accessing a server at the same time. Structuring software systems as composed of multiple concurrent, communicating parts can be useful for tackling complexity, regardless of whether the parts can be executed in parallel.[4]:1

For example, concurrent processes can be executed on one core by interleaving the execution steps of each process via time-sharing slices: only one process runs at a time, and if it does not complete during its time slice, it is paused, another process begins or resumes, and then later the original process is resumed. In this way, multiple processes are part-way through execution at a single instant, but only one process is being executed at that instant.

Concurrent computations may be executed in parallel,[2][5] for example, by assigning each process to a separate processor or processor core, or distributing a computation across a network. In general, however, the languages, tools, and techniques for parallel programming might not be suitable for concurrent programming, and vice versa.

The exact timing of when tasks in a concurrent system are executed depend on the scheduling, and tasks need not always be executed concurrently. For example, given two tasks, T1 and T2:

The word "sequential" is used as an antonym for both "concurrent" and "parallel"; when these are explicitly distinguished, concurrent/sequential and parallel/serial are used as opposing pairs.[6] A schedule in which tasks execute one at a time (serially, no parallelism), without interleaving (sequentially, no concurrency: no task begins until the prior task ends) is called a serial schedule. A set of tasks that can be scheduled serially is serializable, which simplifies concurrency control.

Coordinating access to shared resources

The main challenge in designing concurrent programs is concurrency control: ensuring the correct sequencing of the interactions or communications between different computational executions, and coordinating access to resources that are shared among executions.[5] Potential problems include race conditions, deadlocks, and resource starvation. For example, consider the following algorithm to make withdrawals from a checking account represented by the shared resource balance:

1 bool withdraw(int withdrawal)
2 {
3     if (balance >= withdrawal)
4     {
5         balance -= withdrawal;
6         return true;
7     } 
8     return false;
9 }

Suppose balance = 500, and two concurrent threads make the calls withdraw(300) and withdraw(350). If line 3 in both operations executes before line 5 both operations will find that balance >= withdrawal evaluates to true, and execution will proceed to subtracting the withdrawal amount. However, since both processes perform their withdrawals, the total amount withdrawn will end up being more than the original balance. These sorts of problems with shared resources need the use of concurrency control, or non-blocking algorithms.

Because concurrent systems rely on the use of shared resources (including communication media), concurrent computing in general needs the use of some form of arbiter somewhere in the implementation to mediate access to these resources.

Unfortunately, while many solutions exist to the problem of a conflict over one resource, many of those "solutions" have their own concurrency problems such as deadlock when more than one resource is involved.

Advantages

Concurrent computing has the following advantages:

Models

There are several models of concurrent computing, which can be used to understand and analyze concurrent systems. These models include:

Implementation

A number of different methods can be used to implement concurrent programs, such as implementing each computational execution as an operating system process, or implementing the computational processes as a set of threads within a single operating system process.

Interaction and communication

In some concurrent computing systems, communication between the concurrent components is hidden from the programmer (e.g., by using futures), while in others it must be handled explicitly. Explicit communication can be divided into two classes:

Shared memory communication
Concurrent components communicate by altering the contents of shared memory locations (exemplified by Java and C#). This style of concurrent programming usually needs the use of some form of locking (e.g., mutexes, semaphores, or monitors) to coordinate between threads. A program that properly implements any of these is said to be thread-safe.
Message passing communication
Concurrent components communicate by exchanging messages (exemplified by Scala, Erlang and occam). The exchange of messages may be carried out asynchronously, or may use a synchronous "rendezvous" style in which the sender blocks until the message is received. Asynchronous message passing may be reliable or unreliable (sometimes referred to as "send and pray"). Message-passing concurrency tends to be far easier to reason about than shared-memory concurrency, and is typically considered a more robust form of concurrent programming. A wide variety of mathematical theories to understand and analyze message-passing systems are available, including the actor model, and various process calculi. Message passing can be efficiently implemented via symmetric multiprocessing, with or without shared memory cache coherence.

Shared memory and message passing concurrency have different performance characteristics. Typically (although not always), the per-process memory overhead and task switching overhead is lower in a message passing system, but the overhead of message passing is greater than for a procedure call. These differences are often overwhelmed by other performance factors.

History

Concurrent computing developed out of earlier work on railroads and telegraphy, from the 19th and early 20th century, and some terms date to this period, such as semaphores. These arose to address the question of how to handle multiple trains on the same railroad system (avoiding collisions and maximizing efficiency) and how to handle multiple transmissions over a given set of wires (improving efficiency), such as via time-division multiplexing (1870s).

The academic study of concurrent algorithms started in the 1960s, with Dijkstra (1965) credited with being the first paper in this field, identifying and solving mutual exclusion.[7]

Prevalence

Concurrency is pervasive in computing, occurring from low-level hardware on a single chip to worldwide networks. Examples follow.

At the programming language level:

At the operating system level:

At the network level, networked systems are generally concurrent by their nature, as they consist of separate devices.

Languages supporting concurrent programming

Concurrent programming languages are programming languages that use language constructs for concurrency. These constructs may involve multi-threading, support for distributed computing, message passing, shared resources (including shared memory) or futures and promises. Such languages are sometimes described as Concurrency Oriented Languages or Concurrency Oriented Programming Languages (COPL).[8]

Today, the most commonly used programming languages that have specific constructs for concurrency are Java and C#. Both of these languages fundamentally use a shared-memory concurrency model, with locking provided by monitors (although message-passing models can and have been implemented on top of the underlying shared-memory model). Of the languages that use a message-passing concurrency model, Erlang is probably the most widely used in industry at present.

Many concurrent programming languages have been developed more as research languages (e.g. Pict) rather than as languages for production use. However, languages such as Erlang, Limbo, and occam have seen industrial use at various times in the last 20 years. Languages in which concurrency plays an important role include:

Many other languages provide support for concurrency in the form of libraries, at levels roughly comparable with the above list.

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ This is discounting parallelism internal to a processor core, such as pipelining or vectorized instructions. A one-core, one-processor machine may be capable of some parallelism, such as with a coprocessor, but the processor alone is not.

References

  1. ↑ Operating System Concepts 9th edition, Abraham Silberschatz. "Chapter 4: Threads"
  2. 1 2 Pike, Rob (2012-01-11). "Concurrency is not Parallelism". Waza conference, 11 January 2012. Retrieved from http://talks.golang.org/2012/waza.slide (slides) and http://vimeo.com/49718712 (video).
  3. ↑ "Parallelism vs. Concurrency". Haskell Wiki.
  4. ↑ Schneider, Fred B. On Concurrent Programming. Springer. ISBN 9780387949420.
  5. 1 2 Ben-Ari, Mordechai (2006). Principles of Concurrent and Distributed Programming (2nd ed.). Addison-Wesley. ISBN 978-0-321-31283-9.
  6. ↑ Patterson & Hennessy 2013, p. 503.
  7. ↑ "PODC Influential Paper Award: 2002", ACM Symposium on Principles of Distributed Computing, retrieved 2009-08-24
  8. ↑ Armstrong, Joe (2003). "Making reliable distributed systems in the presence of software errors".
  9. ↑ https://juliacon.talkfunnel.com/2015/21-concurrent-and-parallel-programming-in-julia Concurrent and Parallel programming in Julia
  10. ↑ Blum, Ben (2012). "Typesafe Shared Mutable State". Retrieved 2012-11-14.

Sources

  • Patterson, David A.; Hennessy, John L. (2013). Computer Organization and Design: The Hardware/Software Interface. The Morgan Kaufmann Series in Computer Architecture and Design (5 ed.). Morgan Kaufmann. ISBN 978-0-12407886-4. 

Further reading

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