Compiler

A compiler is computer software that transforms computer code written in one programming language (the source language) into another computer language (the target language). Compilers are a type of translator that support digital devices, primarily computers. The name compiler is primarily used for programs that translate source code from a high-level programming language to a lower level language (e.g., assembly language, object code, or machine code) to create an executable program.[1]

However, there are many different types of compiler. If the compiled program can run on a computer whose CPU or operating system is different from the one on which the compiler runs, the compiler is a cross-compiler. A bootstrap compiler is written in the language that is compiled. A program that translates from a low-level language to a higher level one is a decompiler. A program that translates between high-level languages is usually called a source-to-source compiler or transpiler. A language rewriter is usually a program that translates the form of expressions without a change of language. The term compiler-compiler refers to tools used to create parsers that perform syntax analysis.

A compiler is likely to perform many or all of the following operations: preprocessing, lexical analysis, parsing, semantic analysis (syntax-directed translation), conversion of input programs to an intermediate representation, code optimization and code generation. Compilers implement these operations in phases that promote efficient design and correct transformations of source input to target output. Program faults caused by incorrect compiler behavior can be very difficult to track down and work around; therefore, compiler implementers invest significant effort to ensure compiler correctness.[2]

Compilers are not the only translators used to transform source programs. An interpreter is computer software that transforms and then executes the indicated operations. The translation process influences the design of computer languages which leads to a preference of compilation or interpretation. In practice, an interpreter can be implemented for compiled languages and compilers can be implemented for interpreted languages.

History

A diagram of the operation of a typical multi-language, multi-target compiler

Theoretical computing concepts developed by scientists, mathematicians, and engineers formed the basis of digital computing development during World War II. Primitive binary languages evolved because digital devices only understand ones and zeros and the circuit patterns in the underlying machine architecture. In the late forties, assembly languages were created to offer a more workable abstraction of the computer architectures. Limited memory capacity of early computers led to substantial technical challenges when the first compilers were designed. Therefore, the compilation process needed to be divided into several small programs. The front end programs produce the analysis products used by the back end programs to generate target code. As computer technology provided more resources compiler designs could align better with the compilation process.

The human mind can design better solutions as the language moves from the machine to a higher level. So the development of high-level languages follows naturally from the capabilities offered by the digital computers. High-level languages are formal languages that are strictly defined by their syntax and semantics which form the high-level language architecture. Elements of these formal languages include:

The sentences in a language may be defined by a set rules called a grammar.[3]

BNF, or Backus-Naur form, describes the syntax of "sentences" of a language and was used for the syntax of Algol 60 by John Backus.[4] The ideas derive from the Context Free Grammar concepts by Noam Chomsky, a linguist.[5] "BNF and its extensions have become standard tools for describing the syntax of programming notations, and in many cases parts of compilers are generated automatically from a BNF description."[6]

In the 1940s, Konrad Zuse designed an algorithmic programming language called Plankalkül ("Plan Calculus"). While no actual implementation occurred until the 1970s, it presented concepts later seen in APL designed by Ken Iverson in the late 1950s.[7] APL is a language for mathematical computations.

High-level language design during the formative years of digital computing provided useful programming tools for a variety of applications:

Compiler technology evolved from the need for a strictly defined transformation of the high-level source program into target low level program for the digital computer.The compiler could be viewed as a front end to deal with analysis of the source code and a back end to synthesize the analysis into the target code. Optimization between the front end and back end could produce more efficient target code.[11]

Some early milestones in the development of compiler technology.

Early operating system and systems software were written in assembly language. In the 60s and early 70s, high-level languages for system programming was still controversial due to resource limitations. Still several research and industry efforts began the shift toward high-level systems programming languages, for example, BCPL, Bliss, B, and C.

BASIC Combined Programming Language BCPL designed in 1966 by Martin Richards at the University of Cambridge was originally developed as a compiler writing tool.[14] Several compilers have been implemented, Richards' book provides insights to the language and its compiler.[15] BCPL was not only an influential systems programming language that is still used in research[16] but also provided a basis for the design of 'B' and 'C' languages.

The Basic Language for Implementation of System Software (BLISS was developed for a Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) PDP-10 Minicomputer by W.A. Wulf's Carnegie Mellon University (CMU) research team. The CMU team went on to develop BLISS-11 compiler one year later in 1970.

The Multics time-sharing operating system project involved MIT, Bell Labs, GE (later Honeywell) and was lead by F.J. Corabato, MIT.[17] Multics was written in the PL/I language developed by IBM and IBM User Group.[18] IBM's goal was to satisfy business, scientific, and systems programming requirements. There were other languages that could have been considered but PL/I offered the most complete solution even though it had not been implemented.[19] For the first few years of the Mulitics project, a subset of the language could be compiled to assembly language with the Early PL/I (EPL) compiler by Doug McIlory and Bob Morris, Bell Labs.[20] EPL supported the project until a boot-strapping compiler for the full PL/I could be developed.[21]

Bell Labs left the MULTICS project in 1969, "Over time, hope was replaced by frustration as the group effort initially failed to produce an economically useful system."[22] Continued participation would drive up project support costs. So researchers turned to other development efforts. A system program language B based on BCPL concepts was written by D. Ritche and K. Thompson. Ritche created a boot-strapping compiler for B and wrote UNICS operating system for a PDP-7 in B. (UNICS became called UNIX.)

Bell Labs started development and expansion of C based on B and BCPL. The BCPL compiler had been transported to Multics by Bell Labs and BCPL was a preferred language at the Labs.[23] Initially, a front end program to Labs B compiler was used while a C compiler was developed. In 1971, a new PDP-11 provided the resource to define extensions to B and rewrite the compiler. By 1973 the design of C language was essentially complete and the UNIX kernel for a PDP-11 was rewritten in C. Steve Johnson started development of Portable C Compiler (PCC) to support retargeting of C compilers to new machines.[24][25]

Object oriented programming (OOP) offered some interesting possibilities for application development and maintenance. OOP concepts go further back but were part of LISP and Simula language science.[26] At Bell Labs, the development of C++ became interested in OOP.[27] C++ was first used in 1980 for systems programming. The initial design leveraged C language systems programming capabilities with Simula concepts. Object oriented facilities were added in 1983.[28] The Cfront program implemented a C++ front-end for C84 language compiler. In subsequent years several C++ compilers were developed as C++ popularity grew.

In many application domains the idea of using a higher level language quickly caught on. Because of the expanding functionality supported by newer programming languages and the increasing complexity of computer architectures, compilers became more complex.

Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency DARPA sponsored a compiler project with Wulf's CMU research team in 1970. The Production Quality Compiler-Compiler PQCC design would produce a Production Quality Compiler (PQC) from formal definitions of source language and the target.[29] PQCC tried to extend the term compiler-compiler beyond the traditional meaning as a parser generator (e.g., YACC) without much success. PQCC might more properly be referred to as a compiler generator.

PQCC research into code generation process sought to build a truly automatic Compiler-Writing system. The effort discovered and designed the phase structure of the PQC. The BLISS-11 compiler provided the initial structure.[30] The phases included analyses (front end), intemmediate translation to virtual machine (middle end), and translation to the target (back end) TCOL was developed a tool for the PQCC research to handle language specific constructs in the intermediate representation.[31] Variations of TCOL supported various languages. The Production Quality Compiler-Compiler (PQCC) project investigated techniques of automated compiler construction. The design concepts proved useful in optimizing compilers and compilers for the object-oriented programming language Ada.

The Ada Stoneman Document formalized the program support environment (APSE) along with the kernel (KAPSE) and minimal (MAPSE). An Ada interpreter NYU/ED supported development and standardization efforts with American National Standards Institute (ANSI) and the International Standards Organization (ISO). Initial Ada compiler development by the U.S. Military Services included the compilers in a complete integrated design environment along the lines of the Stoneman Document. Army and Navy worked on the Ada Language System (ALS) project targeted to DEC/VAX architecture while the Air Force started on the Ada Integrated Environment (AIE) targeted to IBM 370 series. While the projects did not provide the desired results, they did contribute to the overal effort on Ada development.[32]

Other Ada compiler efforts got under way in Britain at University of York and in Germany at University of Karlsure. In the U. S., Verdix (later acquired by Rational) delivered the Verdix Ada Development System (VADS) to the Army. VADS provided a set of development tools including a compiler. UNIX/VADS could be hosted on a variety of UNIX platforms such as DEC Ultrix and the Sun 3/60 Solaris trageted to Motorola 68020 in an Army CECOM evaluation,[33] There were soon many Ada compilers available that passed the Ada Validation tests. The Freesoftware Foundation GNU project developed the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC) which provides a core capability to support multiple languges and targets. The Ada version GNAT is one of the most widely used Ada compilers. GNAT is free but there is also commercial support, for example, AdaCore, was founded in 1994 to provide commercial software solutions for Ada. GNAT Pro includes the GNU GCC based GNAT with a tool suite to provide an Integrated Development Environment (IDE).

High-level languages continued to drive compiler research and development. Focus areas included optimization and automatic code generation. Trends in programming languages and development environments influenced compiler technology. More compilers became included in language distributions (PERL, Java Development Kit) and as a component of an IDE (VADS, Eclipse, Ada Pro). The interrelationship and interdependence of technologies grew. The advent of web services promoted growth of web languages and scripting languages. Scripts trace back to the early days of Command Line Interfaces (CLI) where the user could enter commands to be executed by the system. User Shell concepts developed with languages to write shell programs. Early Windows designs offered a simple batch programming capability. The conventional transformation of these language used an interpreter. While not widely used, Bash and Batch compilers have been written. More recently sophisticated interpreted languages became part of the developers tool kit. Modern scripting languages include PHP, Perl, Ruby, and Lua. (Lua is widely used in game development.) All of these have interpreter and compiler support.[34]

"When the field of compiling began in the late 50s, its focus was limited to the translation of high-level language programs into machine code ... The compiler field is increasingly intertwined with other disciplines including computer architecture, programming languages, formal methods, software engineering, and computer security."[35] The "Compiler Research: The Next 50 Years" article noted the importance of object oriented languages and Java. Security and parallel computing were cited among the future research targets.

Compiler construction

The compiler implements a formal transformation from a high-level source program to a low level program. Compiler design can define an end to end solution or tackle a defined subset that interfaces with other compilation tools e.g. preprocessors, assemblers, linkers. Design requirements include rigorously defined interfaces both internally between compiler components and externally between supporting toolsets.

In the early days, the approach taken to compiler design was directly affected by the complexity of the computer language to be processed, the experience of the person(s) designing it, and the resources available. Resource limitations lead to the need to pass through the source code more than once.

A compiler for a relatively simple language written by one person might be a single, monolithic piece of software. However, as the source language grows in complexity the design may be split into a number of interdependent phases. Separate phases provide design improvements that focus development on the functions in the compilation process.

One-pass versus multi-pass compilers

Classifying compilers by number of passes has its background in the hardware resource limitations of computers. Compiling involves performing lots of work and early computers did not have enough memory to contain one program that did all of this work. So compilers were split up into smaller programs which each made a pass over the source (or some representation of it) performing some of the required analysis and translations.

The ability to compile in a single pass has classically been seen as a benefit because it simplifies the job of writing a compiler and one-pass compilers generally perform compilations faster than multi-pass compilers. Thus, partly driven by the resource limitations of early systems, many early languages were specifically designed so that they could be compiled in a single pass (e.g., Pascal).

In some cases the design of a language feature may require a compiler to perform more than one pass over the source. For instance, consider a declaration appearing on line 20 of the source which affects the translation of a statement appearing on line 10. In this case, the first pass needs to gather information about declarations appearing after statements that they affect, with the actual translation happening during a subsequent pass.

The disadvantage of compiling in a single pass is that it is not possible to perform many of the sophisticated optimizations needed to generate high quality code. It can be difficult to count exactly how many passes an optimizing compiler makes. For instance, different phases of optimization may analyse one expression many times but only analyse another expression once.

Splitting a compiler up into small programs is a technique used by researchers interested in producing provably correct compilers. Proving the correctness of a set of small programs often requires less effort than proving the correctness of a larger, single, equivalent program.

Three stage compiler structure

Regardless of the exact number of phases in the compiler design, the phases can be assigned to one of three stages. The stages include a front end, a middle stage, and a back end.

Compiler design

This front/middle/back-end approach makes it possible to combine front ends for different languages with back ends for different CPUs while sharing the optimizations of the middle end.[36] Practical examples of this approach are the GNU Compiler Collection, LLVM,[37] and the Amsterdam Compiler Kit, which have multiple front-ends, shared optimizations and multiple back-ends.

Front end

Lexer and parser example for C. Starting from the sequence of characters "if(net>0.0)total+=net*(1.0+tax/100.0);", the scanner composes a sequence of tokens, and categorizes each of them, for example as identifier, reserved word, number literal, or operator. The latter sequence is transformed by the parser into a syntax tree, which is then treated by the remaining compiler phases. The scanner and parser handles the regular and properly context-free parts of the grammar for C, respectively.

The compiler front end analyzes the source code to build an internal representation of the program, called the intermediate representation or IR. It also manages the symbol table, a data structure mapping each symbol in the source code to associated information such as location, type and scope.

While the frontend can be a single monolithic function or program, as in a scannerless parser, it is more commonly implemented and analyzed as several phases, which may execute sequentially or concurrently. This method is favored due to its modularity and separation of concerns. Most commonly today, the frontend is broken into three phases: lexical analysis (also known as lexing), syntax analysis (also known as parsing), and semantic analysis. Lexical analysis and parsing comprise the syntactic analysis (word syntax and phrase syntax, respectively), and in simple cases these modules (the lexer and parser) can be automatically generated from a grammar for the language, though in more complex cases these require manual modification. The lexical grammar and phrase grammar are usually context-free grammars, which simplifies analysis significantly, with context-sensitivity handled at the semantic analysis phase. The semantic analysis phase is generally more complex and written by hand, but can be partially or fully automated using attribute grammars. These phases themselves can be further broken down – lexing as scanning and evaluating, parsing as first building a concrete syntax tree (CST, parse tree), and then transforming it into an abstract syntax tree (AST, syntax tree).

In some cases additional phases are used, notably line reconstruction and preprocessing, but these are rare. A detailed list of possible phases includes:

Middle end

The middle end performs optimizations on the intermediate representation in order to improve the performance and the quality of the produced machine code.[40] The middle end contains those optimizations that are independent of the CPU architecture being targeted. Common optimizations phases include:

Compiler analysis is the prerequisite for any compiler optimization, and they tightly work together. For example, dependence analysis is crucial for loop transformation.

The scope of compiler analysis and optimizations vary greatly, from as small as a basic block to the procedure/function level, or even over the whole program (interprocedural optimization). Obviously, a compiler can potentially do a better job using a broader view. But that broad view is not free: large scope analysis and optimizations are very costly in terms of compilation time and memory space; this is especially true for interprocedural analysis and optimizations.

Interprocedural analysis and optimizations are common in modern commercial compilers from HP, IBM, SGI, Intel, Microsoft, and Sun Microsystems. The open source GCC was criticized for a long time for lacking powerful interprocedural optimizations, but it is changing in this respect. Another open source compiler with full analysis and optimization infrastructure is Open64, which is used by many organizations for research and commercial purposes.

Due to the extra time and space needed for compiler analysis and optimizations, some compilers skip them by default. Users have to use compilation options to explicitly tell the compiler which optimizations should be enabled.

Back end

The back end is responsible for the CPU architecture specific optimizations and for code generation.

The main phases of the back end include the following:

Compiler correctness

Compiler correctness is the branch of software engineering that deals with trying to show that a compiler behaves according to its language specification.[42] Techniques include developing the compiler using formal methods and using rigorous testing (often called compiler validation) on an existing compiler.

Compiled versus interpreted languages

Higher-level programming languages usually appear with a type of translation in mind: either designed as compiled language or interpreted language. However, in practice there is rarely anything about a language that requires it to be exclusively compiled or exclusively interpreted, although it is possible to design languages that rely on re-interpretation at run time. The categorization usually reflects the most popular or widespread implementations of a language — for instance, BASIC is sometimes called an interpreted language, and C a compiled one, despite the existence of BASIC compilers and C interpreters.

Interpretation does not replace compilation completely. It only hides it from the user and makes it gradual. Even though an interpreter can itself be interpreted, a directly executed program is needed somewhere at the bottom of the stack (see machine language).

Further, compilers can contain interpreters for optimization reasons. For example, where an expression can be executed during compilation and the results inserted into the output program, then it prevents it having to be recalculated each time the program runs, which can greatly speed up the final program. Modern trends toward just-in-time compilation and bytecode interpretation at times blur the traditional categorizations of compilers and interpreters even further.

Some language specifications spell out that implementations must include a compilation facility; for example, Common Lisp. However, there is nothing inherent in the definition of Common Lisp that stops it from being interpreted. Other languages have features that are very easy to implement in an interpreter, but make writing a compiler much harder; for example, APL, SNOBOL4, and many scripting languages allow programs to construct arbitrary source code at runtime with regular string operations, and then execute that code by passing it to a special evaluation function. To implement these features in a compiled language, programs must usually be shipped with a runtime library that includes a version of the compiler itself.

Types

One classification of compilers is by the platform on which their generated code executes. This is known as the target platform.

A native or hosted compiler is one which output is intended to directly run on the same type of computer and operating system that the compiler itself runs on. The output of a cross compiler is designed to run on a different platform. Cross compilers are often used when developing software for embedded systems that are not intended to support a software development environment.

The output of a compiler that produces code for a virtual machine (VM) may or may not be executed on the same platform as the compiler that produced it. For this reason such compilers are not usually classified as native or cross compilers.

The lower level language that is the target of a compiler may itself be a high-level programming language. C, often viewed as some sort of portable assembler, can also be the target language of a compiler. E.g.: Cfront, the original compiler for C++ used C as target language. The C created by such a compiler is usually not intended to be read and maintained by humans. So indent style and pretty C intermediate code are irrelevant. Some features of C turn it into a good target language. E.g.: C code with #line directives can be generated to support debugging of the original source.

While a common compiler type outputs machine code, there are many other types:

Compilers in education

Compiler construction and compiler optimization are taught at universities and schools as part of a computer science curriculum.[47] Such courses are usually supplemented with the implementation of a compiler for an educational programming language. A well-documented example is Niklaus Wirth's PL/0 compiler, which Wirth used to teach compiler construction in the 1970s. In spite of its simplicity, the PL/0 compiler introduced several influential concepts to the field, including uses of:

  1. akin to the 1971 paper by Wirth, program development by stepwise refinement;
  2. a recursive descent parser;
  3. an extended Backus–Naur form (EBNF) to specify the syntax of a language;
  4. a code generator producing portable P-code; and
  5. tombstone diagrams in the formal description of the bootstrapping problem.

Conferences and organizations


High-level programming languages mature over time and lead to a need for Standardization. The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) and the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) manage standards for various programming languages such as FORTRAN, COBOL, C, C++ and so on.

Universities in conjunction with industry and government provide active research and development for programming languages and the associated language tools: compilers, integrated development environments, formal validation suites.

Professional organizations have representation from across the research, education, industry, and government. These include the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) and Association for Computing Machinery (ACM).


A number of conferences in the field of programming languages present advances in compiler construction as one of their main topics.

ACM SIGPLAN supports a number of conferences, including:

The European Joint Conferences on Theory and Practice of Software (ETAPS) sponsors the International Conference on Compiler Construction, with papers from both the academic and industrial sectors.[48]

Asian Symposium on Programming Languages and Systems (APLAS) is organized by the Asian Association for Foundation of Software (AAFS).

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ PC Mag Staff (28 February 2017). "Encyclopedia: Definition of Compiler". PCMag.com. Retrieved 28 February 2017.
  2. ↑ Sun, Chengnian; Le, Vu; Zhang, Qirun; Su, Zhendong (2016). "Toward Understanding Compiler Bugs in GCC and LLVM". ACM.
  3. ↑ lecture notes Compilers: Principles, Techniques, and Tools Jing-Shin Chang Department of Computer Science & Information Engineering National Chi-Nan University
  4. ↑ Naur, P. et al. Report on ALGOL 60. Communications of the ACM 3 (May 1960), 299-314.
  5. ↑ Syntactic Structures ISBN 3-11-017279-8
  6. ↑ Science of Programming, Appendix 1, ISBN 1461259835
  7. ↑ A Programming Language K. E. Iverson ISBN 0-471430-14-5
  8. ↑ John Backus. "The history of FORTRAN I, II and III" (PDF). Softwarepreservation.org
  9. ↑ Porter Adams, Vicki (5 October 1981). "Captain Grace M. Hopper: the Mother of COBOL". InfoWorld. 3 (20): 33. ISSN 0199-6649.
  10. ↑ McCarthy, J.; Brayton, R.; Edwards, D.; Fox, P.; Hodes, L.; Luckham, D.; Maling, K.; Park, D.; Russell, S. (March 1960). "LISP I Programmers Manual" (PDF). Boston, Massachusetts: Artificial Intelligence Group, M.I.T. Computation Center and Research Laboratory.
  11. ↑ Compilers Principles, Techniques, & Tools 2nd edition by Aho, Lam, Sethi, Ullman ISBN 0-321-48681-1
  12. ↑ "Recursive Functions of Symbolic Expressions and Their Computation by Machine", Communications of the ACM, April 1960
  13. ↑ Lisp 1.5 Programmers Manual, The MIT Press
  14. ↑ "BCPL: A tool for compiler writing and system programming" M. Richards, University Mathematical Laboratory Cambridge, England 1969
  15. ↑ BCPL: The Language and Its Compiler, M Richards, Cambridge University Press (first published 31 December 1981)
  16. ↑ The BCPL Cintsys and Cintpos User Guide, M. Richards, 2017
  17. ↑ Corabato/Vyssotsky "Introduction and Overview of the MULTICS System" FJCC 1965
  18. ↑ Report II of the SHARE Advanced Language Development Committee, 25 June 1964
  19. ↑ Multicians.org "The Choice of PL/I" article, Editor /tom Van Vleck
  20. ↑ "PL/I As a Tool for System Programming", F.J. Corbato, Datamation May6, 1969 issue
  21. ↑ "The Multics PL/1 Compiler", R. A. Freiburghouse, GE, Fall Joint Computer Conference 1969
  22. ↑ Datamation column, 1969
  23. ↑ Dennis M. Ritchie, "The Development of the C Language", ACM Second History of Programming Languages Conference, April, 1993
  24. ↑ S.C. Johnson, "a Portable C Compiler: Theory and Practice", 5th ACM POPL Symposium, January 1978
  25. ↑ A. Snyder, A Portable Compiler for the Language C, MIT, 1974.
  26. ↑ K. Nygarard, University of Oslo, Norway, "Basic Concepts in Object Oriented Programming", SIGPLAN Notices V21, 1986
  27. ↑ B. Stroustrup: "What is Object-Oriented Programming?" Proceedings 14th ASU Conference, 1986.
  28. ↑ Bjarne Stroustrup, "An Overview of the C++ Programming Language", Handbook of Object Technology (Editor: Saba Zamir, ISBN 0-8493-3133-8 Invalid ISBN)
  29. ↑ Leverett,Cattell, Hobbs, Newcomer, Reiner, Schatz, Wulf: "An Overview of the Production Quality Compiler-Compiler Project", CMU-CS-89-105, 1979
  30. ↑ W. Wulf, K. Nori, "Delayed binding in PQCC generated compilers", CMU Research Showcase Report, CMU-CS-82-138, 1982
  31. ↑ Joseph M. Newcomer, David Alex Lamb, Bruce W. Leverett, Michael Tighe, William A. Wulf - Carnegie-Mellon University and David Levine, Andrew H. Reinerit - Intermetrics: "TCOL Ada: Revised Report on An Intermediate Representation for the DOD Standard Programming Language", 1979
  32. ↑ William A. Whitaker, "Ada - the project: the DoD High Order Working Group", ACM SIGPLAN Notices (Volume 28, No. 3, March 1991)
  33. ↑ CECOM Center for Software Engineering Advanced Software Technology, "Final Report - Evaluation of the ACEC Benchmark Suite for Real-Time Applications", AD-A231 968, 1990
  34. ↑ P.Biggar, E. de Vries, D. Gregg, "A Practical Solution for Scripting Language Compilers", submission to Science of Computer Programming, 2009
  35. ↑ M.Hall, D. Padua, K. Pingali, "Compiler Research: The Next 50 Years", ACM Communications 2009 Vol 54 #2
  36. ↑ Cooper and Torczon 2012, p. 8
  37. ↑ Lattner, Chris (2017). "LLVM". In Brown, Amy & Wilson, Greg. The Architecture of Open Source Applications. Retrieved 28 February 2017.
  38. ↑ Aho, Lam, Sethi, Ullman 2007, p. 5-6, 109-189
  39. ↑ Aho, Lam, Sethi, Ullman 2007, p. 8, 191-300
  40. ↑ Aho, Lam, Sethi, Ullman 2007, p. 10, 583-703
  41. ↑ Cooper and Toczon (2012), p. 540
  42. ↑ Chlipala, Adam. "Syntactic Proofs of Compositional Compiler Correctness" (manuscript draft, publication date unknown). Retrieved 28 February 2017 – via Adam.Chlipala.net.
  43. ↑ Aycock, John (2003). "A Brief History of Just-in-Time". ACM Comput. Surv. 35 (2; June): 93–113. doi:10.1145/857076.857077. Retrieved 28 February 2017. (Subscription required (help)).
  44. ↑ Swartz, Jordan S.; Betz, Vaugh; Rose, Jonathan. "A Fast Routability-Driven Router for FPGAs" (manuscript draft, publication date unknown). Toronto, CA: Univ. of Toronto, Dept. of Electrical and Computer Engineering. Retrieved 28 February 2017.
  45. ↑ Xilinx Staff (2009). "XST Synthesis Overview". Xilinx, Inc. Retrieved 28 February 2017.
  46. ↑ Altera Staff (2017). "Spectra-Q™ Engine". Altera.com. Retrieved 28 February 2017.
  47. ↑ Chakraborty, P.; Saxena, P. C.; Katti, C. P.; Pahwa, G.; Taneja, S. (2011). "A New Practicum in Compiler Construction". Computer Applications in Engineering Education. 22 (3; 25 July). Retrieved 28 February 2017. (Subscription required (help)).
  48. ↑ ETAPS Staff (28 February 2017). "Conferences". ETAPS.org. Retrieved 28 February 2017.

References

Look up compiler in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: Compiler Construction
This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.