Christianity in Turkey

Greek-Orthodox metropolises in Asia Minor, c. 1880.

Christianity has a long history in Anatolia (Asia Minor) and Armenian Highlands (now part of Turkey), which is the birthplace of numerous Christian Apostles and Saints, such as Paul of Tarsus, Timothy, Nicholas of Myra, Polycarp of Smyrna and many others.

The percentage of Christians in Turkey fell from 19 percent in 1914 to 2.5 percent in 1927,[1] due to events which had a significant impact on the country's demographic structure, such as the Armenian Genocide, the Greek Genocide, the Assyrian Genocide, the population exchange between Greece and Turkey,[2] and the emigration of Christians (such as Levantines, Greeks, Armenians etc.) to foreign countries (mostly in Europe and the Americas) that actually began in the late 19th century and gained pace in the first quarter of the 20th century, especially during World War I and after the Turkish War of Independence.[3] Today there are more than 160,000 people of different Christian denominations, representing less than 0.2 percent of Turkey's population,[4] including an estimated 80,000 Oriental Orthodox,[5] 35,000 Roman Catholics,[6] 18,000 Antiochian Greeks,[7] 5,000 Greek Orthodox[5] and 8.000 Protestants, mostly ethnic Turkish. There is also a small group of ethnic Orthodox-Christian Turks (mostly living in Istanbul or Izmir) who follow the Greek Orthodox or Syrian Orthodox church. They are often confused with ethnic Greeks. Some of them actually have a Greek background, but there are ethnic Turks, who never converted to Islam in the history between this population.[8] Currently there are 236 churches open for worship in Turkey.[9] The Eastern Orthodox Church has been headquartered in Constantinople since the 4th century.[10][11]

Brief description

Two out of the five centers (Patriarchates) of the ancient Pentarchy are in Turkey: Constantinople (Istanbul) and Antioch (Antakya). Antioch was also the place where the followers of Jesus were called "Christians" for the first time in history, as well as being the site of one of the earliest and oldest surviving churches, established by Saint Peter himself. For a thousand years, the Hagia Sophia was the largest church in the world.

Turkey is also home to the Seven Churches of Asia, where the Revelation to John was sent. Apostle John is reputed to have taken Virgin Mary to Ephesus in western Turkey, where she spent the last days of her life in a small house, known as the House of the Virgin Mary, which still survives today and has been recognized as a holy site for pilgrimage by the Catholic and Orthodox churches, as well as being a Muslim shrine. The cave of the Seven Sleepers is also located in Ephesus.

All of the first seven Ecumenical Councils which are recognized by both the Western and Eastern churches were held in present-day Turkey. Of these, the Nicene Creed, declared with the First Council of Nicaea (İznik) in 325, is of utmost importance and has provided the essential definitions of present-day Christianity.

Today, however, Turkey has a smaller Christian percentage of its population than any of its neighbours, including Syria, Iraq and even Iran, due to the Assyrian Genocide, Armenian Genocide and Greek Genocide during and after World War I, and the subsequent large scale population transfers of Turkey's Christian population, most notably Greece, and the forced exodus of indigenous Armenians, Assyrians, Greeks and Georgians upon the breakup of the Ottoman Empire. This was followed by the continued emigration of most of the remaining indigenous Christians over the next century.

During the tumultuous period of the first world war and founding of the Turkish republic, up to 3 million indigenous Christians are alleged to have been killed. Prior to this time, the Christian population stood at around 20% of the total.

In the 19th century in Turkey there were nationalistic campaigns against Assyrians which often had the assistance of Kurdish paramilitary support. In 1915, Turks and Kurds massacred tens of thousands Assyrians in Siirt. Assyrians were attacked in the Hakkari mountains by the Turkish army with the help of Kurdish tribes, and many Christians were deported and about a quarter million Assyrians were murdered or died due to persecution. This number doubles if the killings during the 1890s are included.[12] Kurds saw the Assyrians as dangerous foreigners and enforcers of the British colonizers, which made it justifiable to them to commit ethnic cleansing. The Kurds fought the Assyrians also due to fears that the Armenians, or European colonial powers backing them, would assume control in Anatolia.[13] Kurdish milita plundered Armenian and other Christian villages.[13]

According to professor Martin van Bruinessen, relations between Christians and Kurdish and other Muslim peoples were often bitter and during World War I "Christians of Tur Abdin (in Turkey) for instance have been subjected to brutal treatment by Kurdish tribes, who took their land and even their daughters".[14]

Kurdish-dominated Hamidiye units slaughtered Christian Armenians in Tur Abdin region in 1915.[15] It is estimated that ten thousand Assyrians were killed, and reportedly "the skulls of small children were smashed with rocks, the bodies of girls and women who resisted rape were chopped into pieces live, men were mostly beheaded, and the clergy skinned or burnt alive...." [16]In 1915, Turks and Kurds plundered the Assyrian village of Mar-Zaya in Jelu and slaughtered the population, it is estimated that 7,000 Assyrians wer slaughtered during this period. In September 1914 more than 30 Armenian and Assyrian villages were burnt by Kurdish and Turkish mobs in the Urmia region.[17] After the Russian army retreated, Turkish troops with Kurdish detachments organized mass slaughters of Assyrians, in the Assyirian village of Haftvan 750 men were beheaded and 5000 assyrian women were taken to kurdish harems.[18] Turks and Kurds also slaughtered Christians in Diarbekir. There was a policy during the Hamidian era to use Kurdish tribes as irregulars (Hamidiye units) against the Armenians.[19]

Demographics

The vast majority of Christians in Turkey are members of local ethnic groups indigenous to Anatolia (modern-day Turkey) that did not succumb to the cultural Turkification and religious Islamization of the remaining majority of the pre-Turkified pre-Islamized Anatolian population which had been living in the region since the Late Bronze Age and Iron Age.

The ascendant Muslim population which was now Turkish speaking has poor relations with the communities that remained Christian and did not adopt Turkish, be they Greeks, Armenians, Assyrians and Georgians, and the previous killings, deportations and emigrations of these Christian ethnicities, coupled with the emigration of the country's Jews, left most of the remaining population being self-identified Turks and almost exclusively Muslim.

The newspaper Milliyet reported that 35,000 Muslim Turks converted to Christianity in 2008.[20] There is ethnic Turkish Protestant Christian community in Turkey which number about 7,000-8,000[21][22] adherents most of them came from Muslim Turkish background.[23][24][25][26]

Today the Christian population of Turkey is estimated at more than 160,000 Christians, these include; 60,000 Armenian Apostolic,[5][27] 35,000 Roman Catholics of varying ethnicities, 25,000 ethnic Assyrians, (mostly followers of the Assyrian Church of the East, Syriac Orthodox Church and Chaldean Catholic Church),[28] up to 22,000 Greeks (3,000-4,000 Greek Orthodox,[27] 15,000-18,000 Antiochian Greeks[29][29][30]) and smaller numbers of Bulgarians, Georgians, and Protestants of various ethnicities.

According to Bekir Bozdağ, Deputy Prime Minister of Turkey, there were 349 active churches in Turkey (October 2012). 140 Greek, 58 Assyrian and 52 Armenian.[31]

Christian communities

Churches of the Byzantine rite

Istanbul is the seat of the patriarchate, one of the oldest of the Eastern Orthodox Churches.

Antioch is the official seat of the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Antioch and All the East. Hatay Province including Antakya is not part of the canonic area of the Church of Constantinople. Most of the local orthodox persons are Arabic-speaking.

Armenian church in Vakifli, Turkey

Churches of the Armenian rite

Armenians in Turkey prior to the Armenian Genocide were centered in the eastern part of Turkey, known as the Armenian Highlands, or Western Armenia. Now, the majority are concentrated in Istanbul. A couple thousand others live scattered throughout Anatolian Turkey.

There are 35 churches maintained by the religious foundation in Istanbul and its surrounding areas. Besides Surp Asdvadzadzin Patriarchal Church (translation: the Holy Mother-of-God Armenian Patriarchal Church) in Kumkapi, Istanbul, there are tens of Armenian Apostolic churches.[34] There are other churches in Kayseri, Diyarbakır, Derik, İskenderun, and Vakifli Koyu that are claimed by foundations as well. Around 1,000 Armenian churches throughout Turkey sit on public or privately owned land as well, with them all either being re-purposed or abandoned and/or in ruins.

Churches of the Syriac rite

Saffron Monastery, Patriarchal Vicarate of Mardin near Mardin, Turkey

The Syriac Christian population probably has the most regional influence in Turkey, as its population wasn't confined to or was centered in Istanbul like the rest of the Christian communities of Turkey were. Active churches are located in Istanbul, Diyarbakir, Adiyaman, and Elazig.[36] There are many both active and inactive churches in the traditionally Neo-Aramaic area of Tur Abdin, which is a region centered in the western area of(Mardin province, and has areas that go into Sirnak, and Batman Province. Up until the 1980s the Syriac population was concentrated there as well, but a large amount of the population has fled the region to Istanbul or abroad due to the Kurdish-Turkish conflict (1978-present). The Church structure is still organized however, with 12 reverends stationed in churches and monasteries there.[37] Churches were also in several other provinces as well, but in the Assyrian Genocide the churches in those provinces were destroyed or left ruined.

Churches of the Syriac rite include-

Churches of the Assyrian Rite

The Nestorian (Assyrian Church of the East) church in Turkey was completely wiped out in the Assyrian Genocide, although they were originally centered in Hakkari. The Chaldean Branch is based primarily in Istanbul, although its church structure is centered in Diyarbakir.

Churches of the Assyrian rite include-

Churches of the Latin rite

Anglican Church

The Anglicans in Turkey form part of the Eastern Archdeaconry of the Diocese of Gibraltar in Europe. In 2008 the Bishop of Europe, Geoffrey Rowell, caused controversy by ordaining a local man to minister to Turkish-speaking Anglicans in Istanbul.[38]

The main churches are at Ankara (St Nicholas), Istanbul (Christ Church) and Izmir (St John the Evangelist).

Lutheran Church

The Lutheranism has been in Turkey since 1709. The Istanbul Lutheran Church is founded 2004.

Other denominations

The Armenian Protestants own three Istanbul churches from the 19th century.[39] There is an Alliance of Protestant Churches in Turkey.[40]

There are churches for foreigners in compounds and resorts, although they are not counted in lists of churches as they are only used by Tourists and Expats.

Christian houses of worship

This list is incomplete; you can help by expanding it.

Churches of the Byzantine rite

Church name Picture Status
Saint Andrew in Krisei converted into a mosque
Chora Church converted into a mosque, museum
Church of Christ Pantokrator (Constantinople) converted into a mosque
Church of Christ Pantepoptes (Constantinople) converted into a mosque
Palace of Antiochos ruins
Church of the Virgin of the Pharos ruins
Monastery of Gastria converted into a mosque
Church of St. George, Istanbul active
Hagia Irene museum
Hagia Sophia converted into a mosque, museum
Church of the Holy Apostles demolished, Fatih Mosque build on top
Church of Saint John the Baptist at Lips (Constantinople) converted into a mosque
Monastery of Stoudios ruins; closed to visitors; due to be converted into a mosque
Church of Saint John the Baptist en to Trullo (Constantinople) converted into a mosque
Church of St. Mary of Blachernae (Istanbul) active
Church of St. Mary of the Mongols active
Myrelaion converted into a mosque
Church of Saint Nicholas of the Caffariotes (Istanbul) converted into a mosque
Pammakaristos Church converted into a mosque
Church of Sergius and Bacchus converted into a mosque
Bulgarian St. Stephen Church active
St. Demetrius Church in Feriköy, Istanbul active
Church of Hagia Thekla tu Palatiu ton Blakhernon converted into a mosque
Church of Hagios Theodoros (Constantinople) converted into a mosque
Church of Hagias Theodosias en tois Dexiokratus converted into a mosque
Church of the Theotokos Kyriotissa (Constantinople) converted into a mosque
Kuştul Monastery ruins
Sümela Monastery museum
House of the Virgin Mary museum
Meryem Ana Church active
Church of St Nicholas of Myra(Santa Claus) (Demre) ruins,museum

Churches of the Georgian rite

Turkey's historical Georgian churches are located in the northeast of the country.
Church name Picture Status
Notre Dame de Lourdes (Turkey) (Bomonti Gürcü Katolik Kilisesi) active
Oshki (Öşki Manastırı/Öşk Vank/Çamlıyamaç) abandoned
Khakhuli Monastery (Haho/Bağbaşı) converted into a mosque
Doliskana (Dolishane/Hamamlıköy) converted into a mosque
Bana cathedral (Penek) ruins
Tbeti Monastery (Cevizli) ruins
old Georgian Church, Ani ruins
Ishkhani (İşhan) protected
Parkhali (Barhal/Altıparmak) converted into a mosque
Khandzta ruins
Ekeki ruins
Otkhta Eklesia (Dörtkilise) abandoned
Parekhi ruins
Makriali St. George church, Kemalpaşa, Artvin ruins
St. Barlaam Monastery of Antioch (Barlaham Manastırı), Yayladağı ruins
Ancha monastery ruins
Okhvame, Ardeşen ruins
Tskarostavi monastery ruins
Opiza ruins

Churches of the Armenian rite

Church name Picture Status
Church of the Apparition of the Holy Cross (Kuruçeşme, Istanbul)
Yerevman Surp Haç Ermeni Kilisesi 		active
Holy Archangels Armenian Church (Balat, Istanbul)
Surp Hıreşdagabed Ermeni Kilisesi 		active
Holy Cross Armenian Church (Kartal, Istanbul)
Surp Nişan Ermeni Kilisesi 		active
Holy Cross Armenian Church (Üskudar, Istanbul)
Surp Haç Ermeni Kilisesi 		active
Holy Hripsimiants Virgins Armenian Church (Büyükdere, Istanbul)
Surp Hripsimyants Ermeni Kilisesi 		active
Holy Mother-of-God Armenian Apostolic Church (Bakırköy, Istanbul)
Surp Asdvadzadzin Ermeni Kilisesi 		active
Holy Mother-of-God Armenian Church (Beşiktaş, Istanbul)
Surp Asdvadzadzin Ermeni Kilisesi 		active
Holy Mother-of-God Armenian Church (Eyüp, Istanbul)
Surp Asdvadzadzin Ermeni Kilisesi 		active
Holy Mother-of-God Armenian Church (Ortaköy, Istanbul)
Surp Asdvadzadzin Ermeni Kilisesi 		active
Holy Mother-of-God Armenian Church (Yeniköy, Istanbul)
Surp Asdvadzadzin Ermeni Kilisesi 		active
Holy Resurrection Armenian Church (Kumkapı, Istanbul)
Surp Harutyun Ermeni Kilisesi 		active
Holy Resurrection Armenian Church (Taksim, Istanbul)
Surp Harutyun Ermeni Kilisesi 		active
Holy Three Youths Armenian Church (Boyacıköy, Istanbul)
Surp Yerits Mangants Ermeni Kilisesi 		active
Holy Trinity Armenian Church (Galatasaray, Istanbul)
Surp Yerrortutyun Ermeni Kilisesi 		active
Narlıkapı Armenian Apostolic Church (Narlıkapı, Istanbul)
Surp Hovhannes Ermeni Kilisesi 		active
St. Elijah The Prophet Armenian Church (Eyüp, Istanbul)
Surp Yeğya Ermeni Kilisesi 		active
St. Garabed Armenian Church (Üsküdar, Istanbul)
Surp Garabet Ermeni Kilisesi 		active
St. John the Baptist Armenian Church (Uskudar) unknown
St. John The Evangelist Armenian Church (Gedikpaşa, Istanbul)
Surp Hovhannes Ermeni Kilisesi 		active
St. George (Sourp Kevork) Armenian Church (Samatya, Istanbul) unknown
St. Gregory The Enlightener Armenian Church (Galata, Istanbul) active
St. Gregory The Enlightener Armenian Church (Kuzguncuk, Istanbul)

Surp Krikor Lusaroviç Ermeni Kilisesi 		active
St. Gregory The Enlightener Armenian Church (Karaköy, Istanbul)
Surp Krikor Lusavoriç Ermeni Kilisesi 		active
St. Gregory The Enlightener (Kınalıada, Istanbul)Armenial Church
Surp Krikor Lusavoriç Ermeni Kilisesi 		active
[[St. James Armenian Church (Altımermer, Istanbul)]]
Surp Hagop Ermeni Kilisesi 		active
St. Nicholas Armenian Church (Beykoz, Istanbul)
Surp Nigoğayos Ermeni Kilisesi 		active
St. Nicholas Armenian Church (Topkapı, Istanbul)
Surp Nigoğayos Ermeni Kilisesi 		active
St. Santoukht Armenian Church (Rumelihisarı, Istanbul)
Surp Santuht Ermeni Kilisesi 		active
St. Saviour Armenian Chapel (Yedikule, Istanbul)
Surp Pırgiç Ermeni Kilisesi 		active
St. Sergius Armenian Chapel (Balıklı, Istanbul)
Surp Sarkis Anıt Mezar Şapeli 		active
St. Stephen Armenian Church (Karaköy, Istanbul)
Surp Istepanos Ermeni Kilisesi 		active
St. Stephen Armenian Church (Yeşilköy, Istanbul)
Surp Istepanos Ermeni Kilisesi 		active
St. Takavor Armenian Apostolic Church (Kadıkoy, Istanbul)
Surp Takavor Ermeni Kilisesi 		active
Saints Thaddeus and Barholomew Armenian Church (Yenikapı, Istanbul)
Surp Tateos Partoğomeos Ermeni Kilisesi 		active
St. Vartanants Armenian Church (Feriköy, Istanbul)
Surp Vartanants Ermeni Kilisesi 		active
The Twelve Holy Apostles Armenian Church (Kandilli, Istanbul)
Surp Yergodasan Arakelots Ermeni Kilisesi 		active
Holy Forty Martyrs of Sebastea Armenian Church (Iskenderun, Hatay)
Surp Karasun Manuk Ermeni Kilisesi 		active
St. George Armenian Church (Derik, Mardin)
Surp Kevork Ermeni Kilisesi 		active
St. Gregory The Enlightener Armenian Church (Kayseri)
Surp Krikor Lusavoriç Ermeni Kilisesi 		services held once or twice a year
St. Gregory The Enligtener Armenian Church (Kırıkhan, Hatay)
Surp Krikor Lusavoriç Kilisesi 		active
St. Giragos Armenian Church (Diyarbakır)
Surp Giragos Ermeni Kilisesi 		closed - confiscated by the Turkish State
Cathedral of Ani ruins
Cathedral of Kars converted into a mosque
Cathedral of Mren ruins
Holy Apostles Monastery ruins
Horomos ruins
Karmravank (Vaspurakan) ruins
Kaymaklı Monastery ruins
Khtzkonk Monastery ruins
Ktuts monastery abandoned
Varagavank ruins,protected
Narekavank destroyed, mosque build on the site
Saint Bartholomew Monastery ruins
Saint Karapet Monastery destroyed, village buily on the site
St. Marineh Church, Mush ruins
St. Stepanos Church destroyed
Tekor Basilica destroyed
Armenian church in Vakıflı
Vakıflıköy Ermeni Kilisesi 		active

Churches of the Syriac rite

Church name Picture Status
Mor Sharbel Syriac Orthodox church in Midyat active
Mor Gabriel Monastery active
Mor Hananyo Monastery active

Roman Catholic Churches

Church name Picture Status
Cathedral of the Holy Spirit, Istanbul active
St. Anthony of Padua Church in Istanbul active
Cathedral of the Annunciation, İskenderun active
Church of St. Anthony, Mersin active
St. John's Cathedral, Izmir active
Church of St Peter museum
Church of San Domenico (Constantinople) converted into a mosque
Church of SS Peter and Paul, Istanbul active

[41]

Anglican churches

Church name Picture Status
Christ Church, Istanbul active
St. John the Evangelist's Anglican Church, Izmir active
St. John Evangelist Anglican Church, Alsancak active

Discrimination and Persecution

A number of high-profile cases of Christian persecution have occurred since the modern Turkish Republic was founded in 1923.

Istanbul Pogrom of 1955

Turkish mob attacking Greek property

During the Istanbul pogrom of 1955, members of the Christian community of Istanbul (primarily Turks of Greek descent) were attacked, harassed and killed by Turkish Muslim mobs. Christian cemeteries were ransacked and desecrated, Christian women raped and members of the Christian community forcefully Islamized through mob induced circumcision.[42]

A man who was fearful of being beaten, lynched or cut into pieces would imply and try to prove that he was both a Turk and a Muslim. "Pull it out and let us see," they would reply. The poor man would peel off his trousers and show his "Muslimness" and "Turkishness": And what was the proof? That he had been circumcised. If the man was circumcised, he was saved. If not, he was doomed. Indeed, having lied, he could not be saved from a beating. For one of those aggressive young men would draw his knife and circumcise him in the middle of the street and amid the chaos. A difference of two or three centimetres does not justify such a commotion. That night, many men shouting and screaming were Islamized forcefully by the cruel knife. Among those circumcised there was also a priest.[43]

Zirve Publishing House Massacre

The Zirve Publishing House massacre took place on April 18, 2007 in Malatya, Turkey. Three members of the Christian community, one German and two Turkish converts from Islam, were severely tortured and subsequently killed by five Turkish Muslims. The perpetrators all carried the same note which read: "We did this for our country...they were attacking our religion."[44]

Hrant Dink Assassination

Hrant Dink was a Turkish-Armenian journalist and human rights activist who advocated for Turkish-Armenian reconciliation and minority rights in Turkey. He was assassinated in 2007 by a Turkish Islamist-Nationalist, 17 year old Ogun Samast, who a witness claimed yelled 'I shot the infidel' as he fled the scene.[45][46] At his funeral, over one hundred thousand Turkish mourners marched in protest of the assassination, chanting, "We are all Armenians" and "We are all Hrant Dink".


See also

References

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Christianity in Turkey.
  1. ↑ Içduygu, Ahmet; Toktas, Şule; Ali Soner, B. (1 February 2008). "The politics of population in a nation-building process: emigration of non-Muslims from Turkey". Ethnic and Racial Studies. 31 (2): 358–389. doi:10.1080/01419870701491937.
  2. ↑ "Chapter The refugees question in Greece (1821-1930) in "Θέματα Νεοελληνικής Ιστορίας", ΟΕΔΒ ("Topics from Modern Greek History"). 8th edition" (PDF). Nikolaos Andriotis. 2008.
  3. ↑ "'Editors' Introduction: Why a Special Issue?: Disappearing Christians of the Middle East" (PDF). Editors' Introduction. 2001. Retrieved 11 June 2013.
  4. ↑ "Religions". Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 9 February 2013.
  5. 1 2 3 "Foreign Ministry: 89,000 minorities live in Turkey". Today's Zaman. 15 December 2008. Archived from the original on 20 May 2011. Retrieved 16 May 2011.
  6. ↑ "Statistics by Country". http://www.catholic-hierarchy.org. Retrieved 18 February 2015. External link in |website= (help)
  7. ↑ "Christen in der islamischen Welt – Aus Politik und Zeitgeschichte" (PDF). 2008. Retrieved 11 June 2013.
  8. ↑ "Turkish Protestants still face "long path" to religious freedom". http://www.christiancentury.org. Retrieved 3 November 2014. External link in |website= (help)
  9. ↑ "Life, Culture, Religion". Official Tourism Portal of Turkey. 15 April 2009. Archived from the original on 15 April 2009. Retrieved 9 February 2013.
  10. ↑ William G. Rusch (2013). The Witness of Bartholomew I, Ecumenical Patriarch. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p. 31. ISBN 978-0-8028-6717-9. Constantinople has been the seat of an archiepiscopal see since the fourth century; its ruling hierarch has had the title of"Ecumenical Patriarch" ...
  11. ↑ Erwin Fahlbusch; Geoffrey William Bromiley (2001). The Encyclopedia of Christianity. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p. 40. ISBN 978-90-04-11695-5. The Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople is the ranking church within the communion of ... Between the 4th and 15th centuries, the activities of the patriarchate took place within the context of an empire that not only was ...
  12. ↑ Hannibal Travis, “The Assyrian Genocide, a Tale of Oblivion and Denial,” Forgotten Genocides, Oblivion, Denial, and Memory, ed. René Lemarchand (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2011).""; and https://etd.ohiolink.edu/!etd.send_file?accession=akron1464911392&disposition=inline ""THE SIMELE MASSACRE AS A CAUSE OF IRAQI NATIONALISM: HOW AN ASSYRIAN GENOCIDE CREATED IRAQI MARTIAL NATIONALISM ""
  13. 1 2 Klein, The Margins of Empire, and https://etd.ohiolink.edu/!etd.send_file?accession=akron1464911392&disposition=inline ""THE SIMELE MASSACRE AS A CAUSE OF IRAQI NATIONALISM: HOW AN ASSYRIAN GENOCIDE CREATED IRAQI MARTIAL NATIONALISM "
  14. ↑ http://www.hum.uu.nl/medewerkers/m.vanbruinessen/publications/Bruinessen_Religion_in_Kurdistan.pdf
  15. ↑ The Armenian Genocide: Cultural and Ethical Legacies, Richard G. Hovannisian, Transaction Publishers
  16. ↑ The Armenian Genocide: Cultural and Ethical Legacies, Richard G. Hovannisian, Transaction Publishers
  17. ↑ The Armenian Genocide: Cultural and Ethical Legacies, Richard G. Hovannisian, Transaction Publishers
  18. ↑ The Armenian Genocide: Cultural and Ethical Legacies, Richard G. Hovannisian, Transaction Publishers
  19. ↑ The Armenian Genocide: Cultural and Ethical Legacies, Richard G. Hovannisian, Transaction Publishers
  20. ↑ 35,000 Turks convert into Christianity each year in Turkey!
  21. ↑ Johnstone, Patrick; Miller, Duane Alexander (2015). "Believers in Christ from a Muslim Background: A Global Census". Interdisciplinary Journal of Research on Religion. 11: 17. Retrieved 20 October 2015.
  22. ↑ "International Institute for Religious Freedom: Single Post". Iirf.eu. Retrieved 2015-08-11.
  23. ↑ Jonathan Luxmoore (2011-03-04). "Turkish Protestants still face "long path" to religious freedom". The Christian Century. Retrieved 2015-08-11.
  24. ↑ "TURKEY - Christians in eastern Turkey worried despite church opening". Hurriyetdailynews.com. 2011-07-20. Retrieved 2015-08-11.
  25. ↑ Muslim Nationalism and the New Turks - Jenny White. Books.google.it. 2014-04-27. Retrieved 2015-08-11.
  26. ↑ "TURKEY: Protestant church closed down | Church In Chains - Ireland :: An Irish voice for suffering, persecuted Christians Worldwide". Churchinchains.ie. 2014-10-03. Retrieved 2015-08-11.
  27. 1 2
  28. ↑ "World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples - Turkey : Assyrians". Refworld. Retrieved 2015-08-11.
  29. 1 2 Archived August 30, 2011, at the Wayback Machine.
  30. ↑ "Christen in der islamischen Welt | bpb" (in German). Bpb.de. 2008-12-06. Retrieved 2015-08-11.
  31. ↑ "CHP Tunceli Milletvekili Hüseyin Aygün’ün soru önergesini Vakıflar Genel Müdürlüğü ve Diyanet İşleri Başkanlığı’nın ayrı bilgi notlarıyla yanıtlayan Başbakan Yardımcısı Bekir Bozdağ, Türkiye’de faaliyette bulunan kilise sayısının 349, sinagog sayısının 38 olduğunu bildirdi...Bozdağ, Türkiye’de Rumlara ait 140 kilise, Süryanilere ait 58 kilise ve Ermenilere ait 52 kilise bulunduğunu bildirdi". Siyaset.milliyet.com.tr.
  32. ↑ "Visit to Antakya shows Turkey embraces religious diversity". Mobile.todayszaman.com. 2010-11-07. Archived from the original on 2016-01-22. Retrieved 2015-08-11.
  33. ↑ "Middle Eastern Christians Flee Violence for Ancient Homeland". News.nationalgeographic.com. 2014-12-29. Retrieved 2015-08-11.
  34. ↑ "Listing of Armenian Churches in Armeniapedia". Armeniapedia.org. 2012-07-26. Retrieved 2013-12-24.
  35. ↑ "German Site on Christians in Turkey". Kirche-in-not.de. Archived from the original on 2004-12-30.
  36. ↑ http://www.soc-wus.org/Directory.htm
  37. ↑ http://soc-wus.org/ourchurch/Archd%20Turabdin.htm
  38. ↑ "Istanbul ordination may worsen life for Christians". Church Times. 18 January 2008. Archived from the original on February 14, 2012.
  39. ↑ "German Site on Christians in Turkey". Kirche-in-not.de. Archived from the original on 2007-09-28. Retrieved 2015-08-11.
  40. ↑ "World Evangelical Alliance". Worldevangelicalalliance.com. Archived from the original on 2013-12-03. Retrieved 2015-08-11.
  41. ↑ "Travel to Tao-Klarjeti - Drawings". Tao-klarjeti.ge. Archived from the original on 2015-06-02. Retrieved 2015-08-11.
  42. ↑ Syracuse journal of international law and commerce. 1989. p. 29. Retrieved 2 June 2013. ... its interest in Cyprus at the time of the tripartite conference, planned and organized riots against its Greek citizens and residents in Istanbul and Izmir. ... Greek priests were reported circumcised, scalped, burned in bed; Greek women raped. The Greek Consulate was destroyed in Izmir. Just nine out of eighty Greek Orthodox churches in Istanbul were left undesecrated; twenty-nine were demolished.
  43. ↑ Aziz Nesin, Salkım Salkım Asılacak Adamlar (1987) quoted in: (Vryonis, 2005, p.225), as quoted in: (Gilson, 2005).
  44. ↑ King, L; 3 Men Slain at Bible Publishing House in Turkey; Los Angeles Times, April 19, 2007;http://articles.latimes.com/2007/apr/19/world/fg-christians19
  45. ↑ de Bendern, Paul; Grove, Thomas (2007-01-19). "Turkish-Armenian editor shot dead in Istanbul". Reuters. Retrieved 2007-05-01.
  46. ↑ "Hrant Dink, Agos Gazetesi önünde silahlı saldırıda öldürüldü". Milliyet (in Turkish). 2007-01-19. Retrieved 2007-01-19.
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