Christian terrorism

Christian terrorism comprises terrorist acts by groups or individuals who profess Christian motivations or goals.[1]

Historical

Gunpowder Plot

The early modern period in Britain saw religious conflict resulting from the Reformation and the introduction of Protestant state churches.[2] The 1605 Gunpowder Plot was a failed attempt by a group of English Catholics including Guy Fawkes to assassinate King James I, and to blow up the Palace of Westminster, the English seat of government. According to Vahabph D. Aghai, "The beginnings of modern terrorism can be traced back to England and the Gunpowder Plot of 1605."[3] Although the modern concept of religious terrorism had not yet come into use in the 17th century, David C. Rapoport and Lindsay Clutterbuck point out that the Plot, with its use of explosives, was an early precursor of 19th century anarchist terrorism.[4] Sue Mahan and Pamala L. Griset classify the plot as an act of religious terrorism, writing that "Fawkes and his colleagues justified their actions in terms of religion."[5] Peter Steinfels also characterizes this plot as a notable case of religious terrorism.[6]

Pogroms

Orthodox Christian-influenced movements in Romania, such as the Iron Guard and Lăncieri, which have been characterized by Yad Vashem and Stanley G. Payne as anti-semitic and fascist, respectively, were involved in the Bucharest pogrom, and in political murders during the 1930s.[7][8][9][10][11]

Ku Klux Klan

Klan members conduct a cross burning in 1921.

After the American Civil War of 1861–1865, former Confederate soldiers organized the Ku Klux Klan (KKK) organization originally as a social club, which was taken over in the next year by "night rider" elements. It then began engaging in arson, beatings, destruction of property, lynching, murder, rape, tar-and-feathering, whipping, and voter intimidation. They targeted newly freed slaves, carpetbaggers and scalawags, and the occupying Union army. That iteration of the Klan disappeared by the 1870s, but in 1915 a new Protestant-led[12] iteration of the Klan was formed in Georgia, during a period of xenophobia and anti-Catholicism. This version of the Klan vastly expanded both its geographical reach and its list of targets over those of the original Klan.

Rev. Branford Clarke's illustration in the 1926 book Klansmen: Guardians of Liberty portrays the Klan as slaying Catholic influence in the US.

Vehemently anti-Catholic, the 1915 Klan had an explicitly Protestant Christian terrorist ideology, basing their beliefs in part on a "religious foundation" in Protestant Christianity and targeting Jews, Catholics, and other social or ethnic minorities,[13] as well as "immoral" practices such as adultery, bad debtors, gambling, and drinking alcohol. The goals of the KKK included, from an early time onward, an intent to "reestablish Protestant Christian values in America by any means possible", and they believed that "Jesus was the first Klansman".[14] Although members of the KKK swear to uphold Christian morality, virtually every Christian denomination has officially denounced the KKK.[15]

From 1915 onward, Klansmen conducted cross-burnings (adapted from scenes in the 1915 film Birth of a Nation), not only to intimidate targets, but also to demonstrate their respect and reverence for Jesus Christ. The ritual of lighting crosses was steeped in Christian symbolism, including prayer and hymn singing.[16] Within Christianity the Klan directed its hostilities against Catholics. Modern Klan organizations remain associated with acts of domestic terrorism in the United States.[17]

Ilaga

Ilaga is a Catholic Extremist group who are anti-Islam based in southern Philippines. The group is predominantly composed of Visayans (mostly Ilonggo), embracing a form of Folk Catholicism that utilizes amulets and violence. The group committed its bloodiest act on June 19, 1971, when the group killed 70–100 Moro civilians inside a mosque.

Contemporary

Mark Juergensmeyer, a former president of the American Academy of Religion, has argued that there has been a global rise in religious nationalism after the Cold War due to a post-colonial collapse of confidence in Western models of nationalism and the rise of globalization.[18][19] Juergensmeyer categorizes contemporary Christian terrorists as being a part of "religious activists from Algeria to Idaho, who have come to hate secular governments with an almost transcendent passion and dream of revolutionary changes that will establish a godly social order in the rubble of what the citizens of most secular societies regard as modern, egalitarian democracies".[20]

According to terrorism expert David C. Rapoport, a "religious wave", or cycle, of terrorism, dates from approximately 1979 to the present. According to Rapoport, this wave most prominently features Islamic terrorism, but also includes terrorism by Christians and other religious groups that may have been influenced by Islamic terrorism.[21]

Central African Republic

Anti-balaka groups destroyed almost all mosques in the Central African Republic unrest.[22][23] In 2014, Amnesty International reported several massacres committed by the Anti-balaka against Muslim civilians, forcing thousands of Muslims to flee the country.[24][25] Other sources report incidents of Muslims being cannibalized.[26][27]

While anti-balaka groups have been frequently described as Christian militias in the media, this has been denied by Church leaders. Bishop Juan José Aguirre said: "But in no sense can it be said that the anti-balaka is a Christian group. The anti-balaka are made up of people of all kinds, terribly enraged, and including many people whom we call the 'dispossessed' – bandits, ex-prisoners, delinquents, criminals – who have got involved in these groups and are now extending, like a plague of locusts, across the whole of the CAR, murdering Muslims".[28] The Tony Blair Faith Foundation has also pointed out the presence of animists in anti-balaka groups.[29] However, there have been reports that many members of Anti-balaka groups have forcibly converted Muslims to Christianity.[30][31][32][33]

On 20 January 2014, Catherine Samba-Panza, the mayor of Bangui, was elected as the interim president in the second round voting.[34] The election of Samba-Panza was welcomed by Ban Ki-moon, the UN Secretary-General.[35] Samba-Panza was viewed as having been neutral and away from clan clashes. Her arrival to the presidency was generally accepted by the anti-balaka. Following the election, Samba-Panza made a speech in the parliament appealing to the anti-balaka to put down their weapons.[36]

The next day anti-Muslim violence continued in Bangui,[37] just days after the Muslim former Health Minister Dr. Joseph Kalite was lynched outside the Central Mosque[38] and at least nine other people were killed when attacked when a mob, some of who were from Christian self-defence groups, looted shops in the Muslim-majority Miskine neighbourhood of Bangui.[39] As of 20 January, the ICRC reported that it had buried about 50 bodies within 48 hours.[40] It also came after a mob killed two people whom they accused of being Muslim, then dragged the bodies through the streets and burnt them.[41] Within the previous month, about 1,000 people had died.[42] On 4 February 2014, a local priest said 75 people were killed in the town of Boda, in Lobaye prefecture.[43] In the southwest, anti-balaka militants attacked Guen in early February resulting in the deaths of 60 people, according to Father Rigobert Dolongo, who also said that he had helped bury the bodies of the dead, at least 27 of whom died on the first day of the attack and 43 others the next day. As a result, hundreds of Muslim refugees sought shelter at a church in Carnot.[44]

In May 2014, it was reported that around 600,000 people in CAR were internally displaced with 160,000 of these in the capital Bangui. The Muslim population of Bangui had dropped from 138,000 to 900. The national health system had collapsed and over half of the total population of 4.6 million were said to be in need of immediate aid. Also from December 2013 to May 2014, 100,000 people had fled to neighbouring Cameroon, Chad and the Democratic Republic of Congo bringing the number of CAR refugees in these countries to about 350,000.[45] Amnesty International blamed the anti-balaka militia of causing a "Muslim exodus of historic proportions.[46] Some Muslims of the country were also weary of the French presence in MISCA, with the French accused of not doing enough to stop attacks by Anti-balaka militias. One of the cited reasons for the difficulty in stopping attacks by anti-balaka militias was the mob nature of these attacks.[47]

India

Tripura

The National Liberation Front of Tripura (NLFT), is a rebel group that seeks the secession of Tripura, North-East India, and is a proscribed terrorist organization in India. Group activities have been described as Christian terrorists engaging in terrorist violence motivated by their Christian beliefs.[48][49][50] The NLFT includes in its aims the forced conversion of all tribespeople in Tripura to Christianity.[51] The NLFT says that it is fighting not only for the removal of Bengali immigrants from the tribal areas, "but also for the tribal areas of the state to become overtly Christian", and "has warned members of the tribal community that they may be attacked if they do not accept its Christian agenda".[52] The NLFT is listed as a terrorist organization in the Prevention of Terrorism Act, 2002.[53] The state government contends that the Baptist Church of Tripura supplies arms and gives financial support to the NLFT.[54][55][56] Reports from the state government and Indian media describe activities such as the acquisition by the NLFT of explosives through the Noapara Baptist Church in Tripura,[56] and threats of killing Hindus celebrating religious festivals.[57] Over 20 Hindus in Tripura were reported to have been killed by the NLFT from 1999 to 2001 for resisting forced conversion to Christianity.[58] According to Hindus in the area, there have also been forced conversions of tribal villagers to Christianity by armed NLFT militants.[58] These forcible conversions, sometimes including the use of "rape as a means of intimidation", have also been noted by academics outside of India.[59] In 2000, the NLFT broke into a temple and gunned down a popular Hindu preacher popularly known as Shanti Kali.[60]

Nagaland

The Nationalist Socialist Council of Nagaland (NSCN) is also a Christian[61] Naga nationalist militant group operating in North India.[62][63] The main aim of the organization is to establish a sovereign Christian state, "Nagalim",[64] unifying all the areas inhabited by the Naga people in Northeast India and Burma.[65] The organization's slogan is "Nagaland for Christ".[66][67][68][69][70][71] Its manifesto is based on the principle of Socialism for economic development and a Baptist Christian religious outlook.[72] In some of their documents the NSCN has called for recognizing only Christianity in Nagalim.[73] They believe in Christian theocracy.[74] The NSCN has been declared a terrorist organisation in India under the Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act, 1967.[75] It is believed that the organisation primarily raises funds through trafficking drugs from Burma and selling smuggled weapons to other insurgent groups in the region.[76] The group reportedly indulges in kidnapping, assassination, extortion, forced conversion,[77] and other terrorist activities.[78][79][80][81][82][83][84][85][86]

On 3 August 2015 NSCN leader T. Muivah signed a peace accord with the Government of India in the presence of Prime Minister Narendra Modi, Home Minister Rajnath Singh, and NSA Ajit Doval.[87] However, NSCN also joined with a militia organization named the United Liberation Front of Western South East Asia, along with other Northeast Indian terrorist groups,[88][89] and shortly after broke off peace talks with the Indian government.

Lebanon

Maronite Christian militias perpetrated the Karantina and Tel al-Zaatar massacres of Palestinians and Lebanese Muslims during Lebanon's 1975–1990 civil war. The 1982 Sabra and Shatila massacre, which targeted unarmed Palestinian refugees for rape and murder, was considered to be genocide by the United Nations General Assembly.[90] A British photographer present during the incident said that "People who committed the acts of murder that I saw that day were wearing [crucifixes] and were calling themselves Christians."[91]

Uganda

The Lord's Resistance Army, a guerrilla army, was engaged in an armed rebellion against the Ugandan government in 2005. It has been accused of using child soldiers and of committing numerous crimes against humanity; including massacres, abductions, mutilation, torture, rape, and using forced child labourers as soldiers, porters, and sex slaves.[48][92] A quasi-religious movement that mixes some aspects of Christian beliefs with its own brand of spiritualism,[93][94] it is led by Joseph Kony, who proclaims himself the spokesperson of God and a spirit medium, primarily of the "Holy Spirit" which the Acholi believe can represent itself in many manifestations.[95][95][96][97] LRA fighters wear rosary beads and recite passages from the Bible before battle.[93][98][99][100][101][102]

United States

Contemporary American Christian terrorism can be motivated by a violent desire to implement a Reconstructionist or Dominionist ideology.[103] Dominion Theology insists that Christians are called by God to (re)build society on Christian values to subjugate the earth and establish dominion over all things, as a prerequisite for the second coming of Christ.[104] Political violence motivated by dominion theology is a violent extension of the desire to impose a select version of Christianity on other Christians, as well as on non-Christians.

At least 11 people have been killed in attacks on abortion clinics in the United States since 1993. After 1981, members of groups such as the Army of God began attacking abortion clinics and doctors across the United States.[105][106][107] A number of terrorist attacks were attributed by Bruce Hoffman to individuals and groups with ties to the Christian Identity and Christian Patriot movements, including the Lambs of Christ.[108] A group called Concerned Christians was deported from Israel on suspicion of planning to attack holy sites in Jerusalem at the end of 1999; they believed that their deaths would "lead them to heaven".[109][110]

Eric Robert Rudolph carried out the Centennial Olympic Park bombing in 1996, as well as subsequent attacks on an abortion clinic and a lesbian nightclub. Michael Barkun, a professor at Syracuse University, considers Rudolph to likely fit the definition of a Christian terrorist. James A. Aho, a professor at Idaho State University, argues that religious considerations inspired Rudolph only in part.[111]

Terrorism scholar Aref M. Al-Khattar has listed The Covenant, The Sword, and the Arm of the Lord (CSA), Defensive Action, the Montana Freemen, and some "Christian militia" as groups that "can be placed under the category of far-right-wing terrorism" that "has a religious (Christian) component".[112]

In 1996 three men—Charles Barbee, Robert Berry and Jay Merelle—were charged with two bank robberies and bombings at the banks, a Spokane newspaper, and a Planned Parenthood office in Washington State. The men were anti-Semitic Christian Identity theorists who believed that God wanted them to carry out violent attacks and that such attacks would hasten the ascendancy of the Aryan race.[113]

1n 1993 Dr. David Gunn was shot and killed by an opponent of abortion during a protest outside his clinic in Pensacola, Fla. His death was the first known killing of an abortion provider in the United States. The gunman, Michael F. Griffin, shot Dr. Gunn three times in the back as he approached the rear entrance of the clinic, and Mr. Griffin turned himself over to the police just moments later. Mr. Griffin was convicted of the murder in March 1994 and was sentenced to life in prison.

Anti-abortion violence returned to Pensacola one year after the death of Dr. Gunn when Paul J. Hill, a well-known anti-abortion protester, shot and killed Dr. John Britton and a clinic volunteer, James Barrett, outside a women’s health center in July 1994. Mr. Barrett’s wife, June, was also wounded in the shooting. Mr. Hill, a former minister, was well known for advocating violence against abortion doctors, and he had praised the killing of Dr. Gunn. He was arrested shortly after the shooting as he tried to flee the scene. He was convicted in December 1994 of first-degree murder and was sentenced to death. In the interview before his execution in 2003, Mr. Hill said that the killing of Dr. Gunn in 1993 had inspired him to kill Dr. Britton. ”I believe in the short and long term, more and more people will act on the principles for which I stand,” he said. ”I’m willing and I feel very honored that they are most likely going to kill me for what I did.”

Dr. George Tiller, one of the few doctors in the United States who provided abortions late in pregnancy, was a frequent target of anti-abortion violence and was killed in 2009 by Scott Roeder as he stood in the foyer of his church. A witness who was serving as an usher alongside Dr. Tiller at the church that day told the court that Mr. Roeder entered the foyer, put a gun to the doctor’s head and pulled the trigger. At trial, Mr. Roeder admitted to killing Dr. Tiller and said he did it to protect unborn babies. He was convicted of first-degree murder and sentenced to life in prison. At his sentencing, he told the court that God’s judgment would ”sweep over this land like a prairie wind.” Dr. Tiller was shot once before, in 1993, by Shelley Shannon, an anti-abortion activist who compared abortion providers to Hitler and said she believed that “justifiable force” was necessary to stop abortions. Ms. Shannon was sentenced to 10 years in prison for the shooting of Dr. Tiller and later confessed to vandalizing and burning a string of abortion clinics in California, Nevada and Oregon.

James Kopp was convicted of the murder of Dr. Barnett Slepian, an obstetrician who provided abortion services in the Buffalo area, and has been named a suspect in the shooting of several abortion providers in Canada. Mr. Kopp hid in the woods behind Dr. Slepian’s home in October 1998 and shot him through the window with a high-powered rifle, killing him as he stood in his kitchen with his family. Dr. Slepian had just returned from a memorial service for his father when he was killed. Mr. Kopp spent several years on the run in Mexico, Ireland and France before he was captured and extradited to the Unites States. He was convicted of a state charge of second-degree murder in 2003 and sentenced to 25 years in jail. He was convicted in 2007 on a separate federal charge and sentenced to life in prison. The authorities in Canada also suspect Mr. Kopp in the nonlethal attacks on several abortion providers there who were shot through the windows of their homes. He was charged with the 1995 attempted murder of Dr. Hugh Short, an abortion provider in Ontario, although the charges were dropped after his conviction in New York. The police in Canada also named him a suspect in the 1997 shooting of Dr. Jack Fainman in Winnipeg and the 1994 shooting of Dr. Garson Romalis in Vancouver, which was the first attack on an abortion provider in Canada.

In 2015, Robert Doggart, a 63 year old mechanical engineer, was indicted for solicitation to commit a civil rights violation by intending to damage or destroy religious property after communicating that he intended to amass weapons to attack a Muslim enclave in Delaware County, New York.[114] Doggart, a member of several private militia groups, communicated to an FBI source in a phone call that he had an M4 carbine with "500 rounds of ammunition" that he intended to take to the Delaware County enclave, along with a handgun, molotov cocktails and a machete. The FBI source recorded him saying "if it gets down to the machete, we will cut them to shreds".[115] Doggart had previously travelled to a site in Dover, Tennessee described in chain emails as a "jihadist training camp", and found that the claims were wrong. Doggart pleaded guilty in an April plea bargain stating he had "willfully and knowingly sent a message in interstate commerce containing a true threat" to injure someone. The plea bargain was struck down by a judge because it did not contain enough facts to constitute a true threat.[116][117] Doggart stood as an independent candidate in Tennessee's 4th congressional district, losing with 6.4% of the vote.[118] None of the charges against him are terrorism related.[119][120][121][122]

The November 2015 Colorado Springs Planned Parenthood shooting, in which three were killed and nine injured, was described as "a form of terrorism" by Colorado Governor John Hickenlooper.[123] The gunman, Robert Lewis Dear, was described as a "delusional" man[124] who had written on a cannabis internet forum that "sinners" would "burn in hell" during the end times, and had also written about smoking marijuana and propositioned women for sex.[125][126] He had praised the Army of God, saying that attacks on abortion clinics are "God's work".[127] Deer's ex-wife said he had put glue on a lock of a Planned Parenthood clinic, and in court documents for their divorce she said "He claims to be a Christian and is extremely evangelistic, but does not follow the Bible in his actions. He says that as long as he believes he will be saved, he can do whatever he pleases. He is obsessed with the world coming to an end." Authorities said that he spoke of “no more baby parts” in a rambling interview after his arrest.

Global ideologies

Christian Identity is a loosely affiliated global group of churches and individuals devoted to a racialized theology which asserts that Northern European whites are the direct descendants of the lost tribes of Israel, making them God's chosen people. It has been associated with groups such as the Aryan Nations, the Aryan Republican Army, the Army of God, the Phineas Priesthood, and The Covenant, The Sword, and the Arm of the Lord. It has been cited as an influence on a number of terrorist attacks around the world, including the 2002 Soweto bombings.[128][129][130][131]

These groups are estimated to have 2,000 members in the United States,[132] and an unknown number of members in Canada and the rest of the Commonwealth of Nations. Due to the promotion of Christian Identity doctrines through radio broadcasts and later through the Internet, an additional 50,000 unaffiliated individuals are thought to hold Christian Identity beliefs.[132]

See also

References

  1. ↑ B. Hoffman, "Inside Terrorism", Columbia University Press, 1999, pp. 105–120. ISBN 978-0231126991
  2. ↑ The Reformation in England and Scotland and Ireland: The Reformation Period & Ireland under Elizabeth I, Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
  3. ↑ Aghai, Vahabph D. (2011). Terrorism, an Unconventional Crime: Do We Have the Wisdom and Capability to Defeat Terrorism?. Xlibris Corporation. p. 14. ISBN 9781465349927. Retrieved 12 December 2014.
  4. ↑ Rapoport, David C. (2006). Terrorism: The first or anarchist wave. Routledge. p. 309. ISBN 0415316510.
  5. ↑ Mahan, Sue; Griset, Pamala L. (2013). "Religious Terrorism: Guy Fawkes and the Gunpowder Plot". Terrorism in Perspective (3rd ed.). Sage Publications. pp. 42–44. ISBN 9781452225456. Like many terrorists throughout history, Fawkes and his colleagues justified their actions in terms of religion. Like other instances of 'holy terror', the Gunpowder Plot was deeply rooted in events that had occurred long before.
  6. ↑ Peter Steinfels (5 November 2005). "A Day to Think About a Case of Faith-Based Terrorism". New York Times.
  7. ↑ Paul Tinichigiu (January 2004). "Sami Fiul (interview)". The Central Europe Center for Research and Documentation. Archived from the original on 2 December 2013. Retrieved 26 November 2013.
  8. ↑ Radu Ioanid (2004). "The Sacralised Politics of the Romanian Iron Guard". Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions. 5 (3): 419–453(35). doi:10.1080/1469076042000312203.
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  13. ↑ Al-Khattar, Aref M. (2003). Religion and terrorism: an interfaith perspective. Westport, CT: Praeger. pp. 21, 30, 55, 91.
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    (Google Books)/(Introduction)
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  22. ↑ "Almost all mosques destroyed in Central African Republic unrest". The Times of India. 18 March 2015. Retrieved 31 August 2015.
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  29. ↑ Emily Mellgard. "What is the Antibalaka?". tonyblairfaithfoundation. Retrieved 26 September 2016.
  30. ↑ "Central African Republic: Unprotected Muslims Forced to Abandon Religion". 31 July 2015 – via AllAfrica.
  31. ↑ "Convert or die: Ethnic cleansing in CAR".
  32. ↑ Arbaoui, Larbi. "Central African Republic: Muslims Forced to Convert to Christianity".
  33. ↑ "CAR: Muslims forced to convert to Christianity - Christian News on Christian Today".
  34. ↑ Par RFI Publié le 20 January 2014 Modifié le 20 January 2014 à 18:30 (20 January 2014). "Centrafrique: Catherine Samba-Panza élue présidente de la transition - Afrique - RFI". Rfi.fr. Retrieved 7 September 2015.
  35. ↑ "United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon's Statements". Un.org. 20 January 2014. Retrieved 8 September 2015.
  36. ↑ Par RFI Publié le 20 January 2014 Modifié le 21 January 2014 à 16:08. "Catherine Samba-Panza, nouvelle présidente de Centrafrique: pourquoi elle". Rfi.fr. Retrieved 7 September 2015.
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  38. ↑ Flynn, Daniel (29 July 2014). "Insight - Gold, diamonds feed Central African religious violence". Reuters. Retrieved 7 September 2015.
  39. ↑ Braun, Emmanuel (24 January 2014). "Former minister killed as Central African Republic clashes escalate". Reuters. Retrieved 7 September 2015.
  40. ↑ "CAR to decide on interim leader amid violence". Al Jazeera English. 20 January 2014. Retrieved 7 September 2015.
  41. ↑ Mike McCusker; Save the Children spokesman (20 January 2014). "Bodies burnt in CAR lynching". Al Jazeera English. Retrieved 7 September 2015.
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  48. 1 2 Henderson, Alex (2015). "6 Modern-day Christian Terrorist Groups Our Media Conviently Ignores". Salon. Retrieved 15 June 2015.
  49. ↑ Adam, de Cordier & Titeca, Vlassenroot (2007). "In the Name of the Father? Christian Militantism in Tripura, Northern Uganda, and Ambon". Studies in Conflict and Terrorism. 30 (11): 963. doi:10.1080/10576100701611288.
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  52. ↑ "Analysis: Tripura's tribal strife". BBC News. 21 May 2000. Retrieved 23 November 2014.
  53. ↑ "The Prevention of Terrorism Act, 2002". Republic of India. South Asia Terrorism Portal. 2002. Retrieved 1 March 2009.
  54. ↑ "Constitution of National Liberation Front Of Tripura". South Asia Terrorism Portal.
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  56. 1 2 Bhaumik, Subhir (18 April 2000). "'Church backing Tripura rebels'". BBC News. Retrieved 26 August 2006.
  57. ↑ "Separatist group bans Hindu festivities". BBC News. 2 October 2000.
  58. 1 2 "rediff.com: Tribals unite against conversions in Tripura". rediff.com.
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  61. ↑ Ghosh, Dr Kunal (1 January 2008). "SEPARATISM IN NORTH EAST INDIA: ROLE OF RELIGION LANGUAGE AND SCRIPT". Suruchi Prakashan – via Google Books.
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  63. ↑ "Police, NSCN militants exchange fire". The Hindu. Chennai, India. 2 July 2004.
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  65. ↑ Lyle Morris; The Diplomat. "Is China Backing Indian Insurgents? | The Diplomat | Page 2". The Diplomat. Retrieved 7 September 2015.
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  67. ↑ "Ethnic Life-Worlds in North-East India". google.com.bd.
  68. ↑ "A Matter of Belief". google.com.bd.
  69. ↑ "Holy Warriors". google.com.bd.
  70. ↑ Manpreet Singh. "The Soul Hunters of Central Asia". ChristianityToday.com.
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