Cain and Abel

Cain and Abel (/keɪn, ˈeɪbəl/; Hebrew: הֶבֶל ,קַיִן‎ Qayin, Heḇel; Arabic: قابيل، هابيل‎‎ Qābīl, Hābīl) were sons of Adam and Eve in the biblical Book of Genesis.^[1] Cain, the firstborn, tilled the soil, and his brother Abel was a shepherd. The brothers made sacrifices to God, each of his own produce, but God favored Abel's sacrifice instead of Cain's. Cain murdered Abel. God punished Cain to a life of wandering, but set a mark on him so that no man would kill him. Cain then dwelt in the land of Nod (נוד‎, "wandering"), where he built a city and fathered the line of descendants beginning with Enoch. The narrative never explicitly states Cain's motive (though it does describe him as being wrathful, and his motive is traditionally assumed to be envy), nor God's reason for rejecting Cain's sacrifice, nor details on the identity of Cain's wife. Some traditional interpretations consider Cain to be the originator of evil, violence, or greed.

Genesis narrative

The story of Cain's murder of Abel and its consequences is told in Genesis 4:1-18: (Translation and notes from Robert Alter, "The Five Books of Moses")^[2]

¹ And the human knew Eve his woman and she conceived and bore Cain, and she said, "I have got me a man with the Lord." ²And she bore as well his brother Abel, and Abel became a herder of sheep while Cain was a tiller of the soil. ³And it happened in the course of time that Cain brought from the fruit of the soil an offering to the Lord. ⁴And Abel too had brought from the choice firstlings of his flock, and the Lord regarded Abel and his offering ⁵but did not regard Cain and his offering. And Cain was very incensed, and his face fell. ⁶And the Lord said to Cain,

"Why are you incensed,
and why is your face fallen?
⁷For whether you offer well,
or whether you do not,
at the tent flap sin crouches
and for you is its longing,
but you will rule over it."

⁸And Cain said to Abel his brother, "Let us go out to the field," and when they were in the field Cain rose against Abel his brother and killed him. ⁹And the Lord said to Cain, "Where is Abel your brother? And he said, "I do not know: am I my brother's keeper?" ¹⁰And He said, "What have you done? Listen! your brother's blood cries out to me from the soil. ¹¹And so, cursed shall you be by the soil that gaped with its mouth to take your brother's blood from your hand. ¹²If you till the soil, it will no longer give you strength. A restless wanderer shall you be on the earth." ¹³ And Cain said to the Lord, "My punishment is too great to bear. ¹⁴Now that You have driven me this day from the soil I must hide from Your presence, I shall be a restless wanderer on the earth and whoever finds me will kill me." ¹⁵And the Lord said to him, "Therefore whoever kills Cain shall suffer sevenfold vengeance." And the Lord set a mark upon Cain so that whoever found him would not slay him."

¹⁶And Cain went out from the Lord's presence and dwelled in the land of Nod east of Eden. ¹⁷And Cain knew his wife and she conceived and bore Enoch. Then he became the builder of a city and he called the name of the city like his son's name, Enoch."

Translation notes

• 4:1 – The Hebrew verb "knew" implies intimate or sexual knowledge, along with possession. The name "Cain", which also means "smith" resembles the verb translated as "gotten" but also possibly meaning "to make".^[2]
• 4:2 – Abel's name could be associated with "vapor" or "puff of air".^[2]
• 4:8 – "Let us go out to the field" does not appear in the Masoretic Text, but is found in other versions including the Septuagint and Samaritan Pentateuch^[2][3]
• 4:10–12 – Cain is cursed min-ha-adamah, from the earth, being the same root as "man" and Adam.

Origins

Cain and Abel are traditional English renderings of the Hebrew names Qayin (קין‎) and Hevel (הבל‎). The original text did not have vowels. It has been proposed that the etymology of their names may be a direct pun on the roles they take in the Genesis narrative. Abel is thought to derive from a reconstructed word meaning "herdsman", with the modern Arabic cognate ibil now specifically referring only to "camels". Cain is thought to be cognate to the mid-1st millennium BC South Arabian word qyn, meaning "metalsmith".^[4] This theory would make the names descriptive of their roles, where Abel works with livestock, and Cain with agriculture—and would parallel the names Adam ("man," אדם) and Eve ("life-giver," חוה Chavah).

The oldest known copy of the biblical narrative is from the Dead Sea Scrolls, and dates to the first century BC.^[5][6] Cain and Abel also appear in a number of other texts,^[7] and the story is the subject of various interpretations.^[8] Abel, the first murder victim, is sometimes seen as the first martyr;^[9] while Cain, the first murderer, is sometimes seen as an ancestor of evil.^[10] Some scholars suggest the pericope may have been based on a Sumerian story representing the conflict between nomadic shepherds and settled farmers.^[11] Modern scholars typically view the stories of Adam and Eve and Cain and Abel to be about the development of civilization during the age of agriculture; not the beginnings of man, but when people first learned agriculture, replacing the ways of the hunter-gatherer.^[12]

Cain and Abel are symbolic rather than real.^[13] Like almost all of the persons, places and stories in the Primeval history (the first eleven chapters of Genesis), they are mentioned nowhere else in the Hebrew Bible, a fact that suggests that the History is a late composition attached to Genesis to serve as an introduction.^[14] Just how late is a matter for dispute: the history may be as late as the Hellenistic period (first decades of the 4th century BCE),^[15] but the high level of Babylonian myth behind its stories (Cain and Abel are paralleled by Dumuzi and Enkidu) has led others to date it to the Babylonian exile (6th century BCE).^[16][17]

Jewish and Christian interpretations

One question arising in early in the story is why God rejects Cain's sacrifice, since Cain never received instructions about how to sacrifice correctly, nor had he done anything wrong, and why God then admonishes Cain with a warning about sin. The Midrash suggest that although Abel brought the best meat from his flock, Cain did not set aside for God the best of his harvest.^[18]

Cain

Cain
Cain, by Henri Vidal, Jardin des Tuileries, Paris
Known for	First person that was born; first murderer[19]
Spouse(s)	Awan, who was his sister[20]
Children	Enoch
Parent(s)	Adam and Eve

According to the Book of Genesis, Cain (Hebrew: קַיִן‎, Qayin; Koine Greek Κάιν, Ka-in;^[21] Ethiopian version: Qayen; Arabic: قابيل‎‎, Qābīl) is the first child of Eve,^[22] the first murderer, and the third human being to fall under a curse.^[23]

According to Genesis 4:1–16, Cain treacherously murdered his brother Abel, lied about the murder to God, and as a result was cursed and marked for life. With the earth left cursed to drink Abel's blood, Cain was no longer able to farm the land. Cain is punished as a "fugitive and wanderer". He receives a mark from God, commonly referred to as the mark of Cain, representing God's promise to protect Cain from being murdered.^[24]

Exegesis of the Septuagint's narrative, "groaning and shaking upon the earth" has Cain suffering from body tremors.^[25] Interpretations extend Cain's curse to his descendants, where they all died in the Great Deluge as retribution for the loss of Abel's potential offspring.^[26]

Etymology of name

One popular theory regarding the name of Cain connects it to the verb "kana" (קנה), meaning "to get" and used by Eve in Genesis 4:1 when she says after bearing Cain, "I have gotten a man from the Lord." In this viewpoint, dating articulated by Nachmanides in the thirteenth century, Cain's name presages his role of mastery, power, and sin.^[27]

According to the Life of Adam and Eve, Cain fetched his mother a reed (qaneh) which is how he received his name Qayin (Cain). The symbolism of him fetching a reed may be a nod to his occupation as a farmer, as well as a commentary to his destructive nature. He is also described as "lustrous", which may reflect the Gnostic association of Cain with the sun.^[28]

Characteristics

Cain is described as a city-builder,^[29] and the forefather of tent-dwelling pastoralists, all lyre and pipe players, and bronze and iron smiths.^[30]

In an alternate translation of Genesis 4:17, endorsed by a minority of modern commentators, Cain's son Enoch builds a city and names it after his son, Irad. Such a city could correspond with Eridu, one of the most ancient cities known.^[31] Philo observes that it makes no sense for Cain, the third human on Earth, to have founded an actual city. Instead, he argues, the city symbolizes an unrighteous philosophy.^[32]

In the New Testament, Cain is cited as an example of unrighteousness in 1 John 3:12 and Jude 1:11. The Targumim, rabbinic sources, and later speculations supplemented background details for the daughters of Adam and Eve.^[33] Such exegesis of Genesis 4 introduced Cain's wife as being his sister, a concept that has been accepted for at least 1800 years.^[34] This can be seen with Jubilees 4 which narrates that Cain settled down and married his sister Awan, who bore his first son, the first Enoch, approximately 196 years after the creation of Adam. Cain then establishes the first city, naming it after his son, builds a house, and lives there until it collapses on him, killing him.^[35]

Other stories

In Jewish tradition, Philo, Pirke De-Rabbi Eliezer and the Targum Pseudo-Jonathan asserted that Adam was not the father of Cain. Rather, Eve was subject to adultery having been seduced by either Sammael,^[36][37] the serpent^[38] (nahash, Hebrew: נחש‎) in the Garden of Eden,^[39] or the devil himself.^[33] Christian exegesis of the "evil one" in 1 John 3:10–12 have also led some commentators, like Tertullian, to agree that Cain was the son of the devil^[40] or some fallen angel. Thus, according to some interpreters, Cain was half-human and half-angelic, one of the Nephilim. Gnostic exegesis in the Apocryphon of John has Eve seduced by Yaldaboth. However, in the Hypostasis of the Archons, Eve is raped by a pair of Archons.^[41]

Pseudo-Philo, a Jewish work of the first century CE, narrates that Cain murdered his brother at the age of 15. After escaping to the Land of Nod, Cain fathered four sons: Enoch, Olad, Lizpha and Fosal; and two daughters: Citha and Maac. Cain died at the age of 730, leaving his corrupt descendants spreading evil on earth.^[42] According to the Book of Jubilees, Cain murdered his brother with a stone. Afterwards, Cain was killed by the same instrument he used against his brother; his house fell on him and he was killed by its stones.^[43] A heavenly law was cited after the narrative of Cain's death saying:

With the instrument with which a man kills his neighbour with the same shall he be killed ; after the manner that he wounded him, in like manner shall they deal with him.^[44]

A Talmudic tradition says that after Cain had murdered his brother, God made a horn grow on his head (see the mark of Cain). Later, Cain was killed at the hands of his great grandson Lamech, who mistook him for a wild beast.^[45]

Abel

Abel
Icon of Abel by Theophanes the Greek
Known for	First man murdered, First martyr
Parent(s)	Adam and Eve

According to the narrative in Genesis, Abel (Hebrew: הֶבֶל‎, Hevel; Arabic: هابيل‎‎, Hābīl) is Eve's second son. His name in Hebrew is composed of the same three consonants as a root meaning "breath".^[46] Julius Wellhausen, and many scholars following him, have proposed that the name is independent of the root.^[47] Eberhard Schrader had previously put forward the Akkadian (Old Assyrian dialect) ablu ("son") as a more likely etymology.^[48]

In Christianity, comparisons are sometimes made between the death of Abel and that of Jesus, the former thus seen as being the first martyr. In Matthew 23:35 Jesus speaks of Abel as "righteous", and the Epistle to the Hebrews states that "The blood of sprinkling ... [speaks] better things than that of Abel".(Hebrews 12:24) The blood of Jesus is interpreted as bringing mercy; but that of Abel as demanding vengeance (hence the curse and mark).^[49]

Abel is invoked in the litany for the dying in the Roman Catholic Church, and his sacrifice is mentioned in the Canon of the Mass along with those of Abraham and Melchizedek. The Alexandrian Rite commemorates him with a feast day on December 28.^[50]

According to the Coptic Book of Adam and Eve (at 2:1–15), and the Syriac Cave of Treasures, Abel's body, after many days of mourning, was placed in the Cave of Treasures, before which Adam and Eve, and descendants, offered their prayers. In addition, the Sethite line of the Generations of Adam swear by Abel's blood to segregate themselves from the unrighteous.

In the Book of Enoch (22:7), regarded by most Christian and Jewish traditions as extra-biblical, the soul of Abel is described as having been appointed as the chief of martyrs, crying for vengeance, for the destruction of the seed of Cain. This view is later repeated in the Testament of Abraham (A:13 / B:11), where Abel has been raised to the position as the judge of the souls.

Family

Family tree

The following family tree of the line of Cain is compiled from a variety of biblical and extra-biblical texts.

Adam

Eve

Cain

Abel

Seth

Enoch

Enos

Irad

Kenan

Mehujael

Mahalalel

Methushael

Jared

Adah

Lamech

Zillah

Enoch

Jabal

Jubal

Tubal-Cain

Naamah

Methuselah

Lamech

Noah

Shem

Ham

Japheth

Sisters

Various early commentators have said that Cain and Abel have sisters, usually twin sisters. According to Rabbi Joshua ben Karha as quoted in Genesis Rabbah, "Only two entered the bed, and seven left it: Cain and his twin sister, Abel and his two twin sisters."^[51][52]

Motives

The Book of Genesis does not give a specific reason for the murder of Abel. Modern commentators typically assume that the motives were jealousy and anger due to God rejecting Cain's offering, while accepting Abel's.^[19] The First Epistle of John says the following:

Do not be like Cain, who belonged to the evil one and murdered his brother. And why did he murder him? Because his own actions were evil and his brother’s were righteous."

— 1 John 3:12

Ancient exegetes, such as the Midrash and the Conflict of Adam and Eve with Satan, tell that the motive involved a desire for the most beautiful woman. According to Midrashic tradition, Cain and Abel each had twin sisters; each was to marry the other's. The Midrash states that Abel's promised wife, Aclima, was more beautiful. Since Cain would not consent to this arrangement, Adam suggested seeking God's blessing by means of a sacrifice. Whoever God blessed would marry Aclima. When God openly rejected Cain's sacrifice, Cain slew his brother in a fit of jealousy and anger.^[19][53] Analysts have described Cain's relationship to his sister as being incestuous.^[54]

Muslim interpretations

The story appears in the Qur'an, in Surah 5, verses 27 to 31:^[55]

[Prophet], tell them the truth about the story of Adam's two sons: each of them offered a sacrifice, and it was accepted from one and not the other. One said, 'I will kill you,' but the other said, 'God only accepts the sacrifice of those who are mindful of Him. If you raise your hand to kill me, I will not raise mine to kill you. I fear God, the Lord of all worlds, and I would rather you were burdened with my sins as well as yours and became an inhabitant of the Fire: such is the evildoers' reward.' But his soul prompted him to kill his brother: he killed him and became one of the losers. God sent a raven to scratch up the ground and show him how to cover his brother's corpse and he said, 'Woe is me! Could I not have been like this raven and covered up my brother's body?' He became remorseful.

— The QUR'AN (English translation by M.A.S. Abdel Haleem)

The story of Cain and Abel has always been used as a deterrent from murder in Islamic tradition. Abdullah ibn Mas'ud reported that Muhammad said in a hadith:

"No soul is wrongfully killed except that some of the burden falls upon the son of Adam, for he was the first to establish the practice of murder."^[56]

Muslim scholars were divided on the motives behind Cain's murder of Abel, and further why the two brothers were obliged to offer sacrifices to God. Some scholars believed that Cain's motives were plain jealousy and lust. Both Cain and Abel desired to marry Adam's beautiful daughter, Aclima (Aqlimia' in Arabic). Seeking to end to the dispute between them, Adam suggested that each present an offering before God. The one whose offering God accepted would marry Aclima. Abel, a generous shepherd, offered the fattest of his sheep as an oblation to God. But Cain, a miserly farmer, offered only a bunch of grass and some worthless seeds to him. God accepted Abel's offering and rejected Cain's—an indication that Abel was more righteous than Cain, and thus worthier of Aclima. As a result, it was decided that Abel would marry Aclima. Cain, on the other hand, would marry her less beautiful sister. Blinded by anger and lust for Aclima, Cain sought to get revenge on Abel and escape with Aclima.^[57][58]

According to another tradition, the devil appeared to Cain and instructed him how to exact revenge on Abel. "Hit Abel's head with a stone and kill him", whispered the devil to Cain. After the murder, the devil hurried to Eve shouting: "Eve! Cain has murdered Abel!". Eve did not know what murder was or how death felt like. She asked, bewildered and horrified, "Woe to you! What is murder?". "He [Abel] does not eat. He does not drink. He does not move [That's what murder and death are]", answered the Devil. Eve burst out into tears and started to wail madly. She ran to Adam and tried to tell him what happened. However, she could not speak because she could not stop wailing. Since then, women wail brokenheartedly when a loved one dies.^[59] A different tradition narrates that while Cain was quarreling with Abel, the devil killed an animal with a stone in Cain's sight to show him how to murder Abel.^[60]

After burying Abel and escaping from his family, Cain got married and had children. Cain's descendants were debauched and indulged in fire worship. They died in Noah's flood among other tyrants and unbelievers.^[61]

Some Muslim scholars puzzled over the mention of offerings in the narrative of Cain and Abel. Offerings and sacrifices were ordained only after the revelation of the Torah to Moses. This led some scholars, such as Said ibn al-Musayyib, to think that the sons of Adam mentioned in the Quran are actually two Israelites, not Cain and Abel.^[60]

According to Shi'a Muslim belief, Abel ("Habeel") is buried in the Nabi Habeel Mosque, located on the west mountains of Damascus, near the Zabadani Valley, overlooking the villages of the Barada river (Wadi Barada), in Syria. Muslims are frequent visitors of this mosque for ziyarat. The mosque was built by Ottoman Wali Ahmad Pasha in 1599.

Legacy and symbolism

Allusions to Cain and Abel as an archetype of fratricide appear in numerous references and retellings, through medieval art and Shakespearean works up to present day fiction.^[23] A millennia-old explanation for Cain being capable of murder is that he may have been the offspring of a fallen angel or Satan himself, rather than being from Adam.^[62][33][41]

A medieval legend has Cain arriving at the Moon, where he eternally settled with a bundle of twigs. This was originated by the popular fantasy of interpreting the shadows on the Moon as a face. An example of this belief can be found in Dante Alighieri's Inferno (XX, 126^[63]) where the expression "Cain and the twigs" is used as a kenning for "moon".

A treatise on Christian Hermeticism, Meditations on the Tarot: A journey into Christian Hermeticism, describes the biblical account of Cain and Abel as a myth, i.e. it expresses, in a form narrated for a particular case, an "eternal" idea. It shows us how brothers can become mortal enemies through the very fact that they worship the same God in the same way. According to the author, the source of religious wars is revealed. It is not the difference in dogma or ritual which is the cause, but the "pretention to equality" or "the negation of hierarchy".^[64]

In Latter-day Saint theology, Cain is considered to be the quintessential Son of Perdition, the father of secret combinations (i.e. secret societies and organized crime), as well as the first to hold the title Master Mahan meaning master of [the] great secret, that [he] may murder and get gain.^[65]

In Mormon folklore — a second-hand account relates that an early Mormon leader, David W. Patten, encountered a very tall, hairy, dark-skinned man in Tennessee who said that he was Cain. The account states that Cain had earnestly sought death but was denied it, and that his mission was to destroy the souls of men.^[66][67] The recollection of Patten's story is quoted in Spencer W. Kimball's The Miracle of Forgiveness, a popular book within The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.^[68] This widespread Mormon belief is further emphasized by an account from Salt Lake City in 1963 which stated that "One superstition is based on the old Mormon belief that Cain is a black man who wanders the earth begging people to kill him and take his curse upon themselves (M, 24, SLC, 1963)."^[69]

Freud’s theory of fratricide is explained by the Oedipus or Electra complex through Carl Jung's supplementation.^[70]

There were other, minor traditions concerning Cain and Abel, of both older and newer date. The apocryphal Life of Adam and Eve tells of Eve having a dream in which Cain drank his brother’s blood. In an attempt to prevent the prophecy from happening the two young men are separated and given different jobs.^[71]

The author Daniel Quinn, first in his book "Ishmael" and later in "The Story of B", proposes that the story of Cain and Abel is an account of early Semitic herdsmen observing the beginnings of what he calls totalitarian agriculture, with Cain representing the first 'modern' agriculturists and Abel the pastoralists.^[72]

Cultural portrayals and references

• In the classic poem Beowulf, the monstrous Grendel and his mother are said to be descended from Cain.^[73]
• Lord Byron rewrote and dramatized the story in the play Cain, viewing Cain as symbolic of a sanguinary temperament, provoked by Abel's hypocrisy and sanctimony.^[73]
• The expression "Cain-coloured beard" (Cain was traditionally considered to have red hair) is used in Shakespeare's The Merry Wives of Windsor (1602).^[73]
• John Steinbeck's 1952 novel East of Eden (also a 1955 film) refers in its title to Cain's exile and contains discussions of the Cain and Abel story which then play out in the plot.^[74]
• The Grateful Dead's "Mississippi Half-Step Uptown Toodleloo" on Wake of the Flood (1973) suggests that "Cain caught Abel holding loaded dice."^[75]
• In the television series Dallas, Bobby Ewing (Patrick Duffy) is viewed by some as Abel to his brother J.R. Ewing's (Larry Hagman) Cain.
• 4 Runner's "Cain's Blood" (1995) uses Cain and Abel as a metaphor for the struggle between good and evil in the song's narrator.^[76]
• The track "Ο Κάιν" (O Káin, meaning Cain) by the Greek rock band Τα Ξύλινα Σπαθιά from their 1995 studio album "Πέρα απ' τις πόλεις της ασφάλτου" (Beyond the cities of asphalt).
• Command & Conquer's Kane loosely references Cain, from his early involvement with human civilization to creating a radical militarist faction named Nod.

See also

• Balbira & Kalmana
• Bereishit (parsha)#Cain and Abel
• Biblical figures in Islamic tradition#Cain and Abel
• Biblical narratives and the Quran#Cain and Abel (Qābīl and Hābīl)
• Inanna#Courtship of Inanna and Dumuzid
• Debate between sheep and grain
• Debate between Winter and Summer
• The First Mourning

References

Bibliography

• Alter, Robert (2008). The Five Books of Moses: A Translation with Commentary. W. W. Norton & Compan. ISBN 9780393070248. 
• BDB, Francis Brown; Samuel Rolles Driver; Charles Augustus Briggs. The Brown Driver Briggs Hebrew and English Lexicon : with an appendix containing the biblical Aramaic; coded with the numbering system from "Strong's Exhaustive Concordance of the Bible" (7. print. 1997 ed.). Peabody: Hendrickson. ISBN 978-1565632066. 
• Byron, John (2011). Cain and Abel in text and tradition : Jewish and Christian interpretations of the first sibling rivalry. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 978-9004192522. 

• Blenkinsopp, Joseph (2011). Creation, Un-creation, Re-creation: A discursive commentary on Genesis 1-11. New York: Bloomsbury T&T Clark. ISBN 978-0-567-37287-1. 
• Doukhan, Abi (2016). Biblical Portraits of Exile: A philosophical reading. Oxon: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-4724-7241-0
• Gmirkin, Russell E. (2006). Berossus and Genesis, Manetho and Exodus. Bloomsbury. ISBN 9780567134394. 
• Kugler, Robert; Hartin, Patrick (2009). An Introduction to the Bible. Eerdmans. ISBN 9780802846365. 
• Kugel, James L. (1998). Traditions of the Bible : a guide to the Bible as it was at the start of the common era. Cambridge, Mass. [u.a.]: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0674791510. 
• Luttikhuizen, Gerard P. (Editor) (2003). Eve's children : the biblical stories retold and interpreted in Jewish and Christian traditions (Vol. 5 ed.). Leiden: Brill. ISBN 978-9004126152. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
• Sailhamer, John H. (2010). The Meaning of the Pentateuch: Revelation, Composition and Interpretation. InterVarsity Press. ISBN 9780830878888. 

Further reading

• Aptowitzer, Victor (1922). Kain und Abel in der agada: den Apokryphen, der hellenistischen, christlichen und muhammedanischen literatur (Vol. 1 ed.). R. Löwit. 
• Glenthøj, Johannes Bartholdy (1997). Cain and Abel in Syriac and Greek writers : (4th - 6th centuries). Lovanii: Peeters. ISBN 978-9068319095. 

External links

• Media related to Cain and Abel at Wikimedia Commons
• Texts on Wikisource:
  • Bible (King James) / Genesis 4
  • Book of Moses, Chapter 5 in Pearl of Great Price
  • Cain
  • Abel
• Genesis 4 (KJV) at BibleGateway.com
• Story of Cain and Abel in Sura The Table (Al Ma'ida)
• Qaheen / Cain and Hevel / Abel
• Parallel voweled Hebrew and English (JPS 1917)
• Rashi on Genesis, Chapter 4, by Rashi
• Sanhedrin 37