Brown pelican

Brown pelican
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Pelecaniformes
Family: Pelecanidae
Genus: Pelecanus
Species: P. occidentalis
Binomial name
Pelecanus occidentalis
Linnaeus, 1766
Distribution of Brown pelican
red: year-round nonbreeding
orange: year-round breeding

The brown pelican (Pelecanus occidentalis) is a small pelican in the family Pelecanidae. It was described by Carl Linnaeus in the 12th edition of his Systema Naturae, where it was given the binomial name of Pelecanus occidentalis. It is one of only three pelican species found in the Americas and one of the only two that feeds by diving in water. It is the smallest of the eight pelican species, although it is larger than most other shorebirds. It measures 1–1.5 m (3.3–4.9 ft) in length, weighs from 2.75–5.5 kg (6.1–12.1 lb), and has a wingspan from 1.8–2.5 m (5.9–8.2 ft). It has a very long, grayish-white beak, measuring about 34 cm (13 in), which has a greenish black gular pouch at the bottom. It is one of the best known and most prominent birds found on the Atlantic and Pacific Coasts in the Americas. On the Atlantic Coast, they distribute from Nova Scotia to Venezuela, and to the mouth of the Amazon River. Along the Pacific Coast, they are found from British Columbia to northern Peru, and south central Chile, including the Galapagos Islands. North American pelicans move in flocks further north along the coasts, returning to warmer waters for winter.

The brown pelican is a piscivore, primarily feeding on fish. It occasionally forages on amphibians and crustaceans. It nests in colonies in secluded area, often on islands, vegetated spots among sand dunes, thickets of shrubs and trees, and often in mangroves further south. The female lays two to three oval, chalky white eggs. Incubation takes 28 to 30 days with both sexes sharing duties, keeping the eggs warm by holding them on or under their webbed feet. Hatching takes 28 to 30 days, and fledging takes about 63 days. Only one brood is raised per year. They newly hatched children are pink, and within 4 to 14 days turn grey or black. Six to nine weeks after hatching, the juveniles leave the nest, and gather into small groups known as pods.

The brown pelican has been rated as a species of least concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. It was listed under the United States Endangered Species Act from 1970 to 2009, as pesticides like DDT and dieldrin threatened its future in southeastern United States and California. In 1972, the use of DDT was banned in Florida followed by the rest of the United States. Since then, its population has been increasing. In 1903, Theodore Roosevelt set aside Pelican Island to solely protect the brown pelican from hunters. It is also protected by the Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918.

Taxonomy

The brown pelican was described by Swedish zoologist Carl Linnaeus, in the landmark 1766 12th edition of his Systema Naturae, where it was given the binomial name of Pelecanus occidentalis.[2] This species belongs to the New World clade of the genus Pelecanus.[3]

There are five recognised subspecies of the brown pelican:[4][5]

The Peruvian pelican (P. thagus), previously treated as a subspecies of the brown pelican, is now considered a separate species. This is on the basis of its much greater size (approximately double the weight of the brown pelican), differences in bill colors and plumage, and a lack of hybridization despite a sizable area of range overlap.[3]

In 1931, Peters separated the American white pelican and the brown pelican (including the Peruvian pelican), into monospecific subgenera. This classification was also supported by Dorst and Mougin in 1979. The spot-billed pelican and the pink-backed pelican, which are small tree nesters, were considered to be sister species by Elliott in 1992 and Nelson in 2005, and the brown and the Peruvian pelicans were held to be the most divergent of all. In 1993, Johnsgard hypothesized that the pelicans derived from a south Asian or African ancestor, and spread out through northern Asia and Australia before finally coming to North America. This would imply that unless the brown pelican and the American white pelican resulted from multiple invasions of North America, they would have sister taxa. However, trees derived from genetic data disagree. In 1990, Sibley and Ahlquist's UPGMA (Unweighted Pair Group Method with Arithmetic Mean) tree based on DNA–DNA hybridization data omitted the Peruvian, Dalmatian, and spot-billed pelicans, but implied different relationships: unexpectedly, the American white and the pink-backed pelican were sister species, this pair being sister to the great white pelican and, in turn, this triplet being sister to the Australian pelican, with the brown pelican being the most divergent.[3]

Description

Adult in flight, Bodega Bay, California

The brown pelican is the smallest of the eight pelican species,[6] although it is larger than most other shorebirds. It measures 1–1.5 m (3.3–4.9 ft) in length, weighs 2.75–5.5 kg (6.1–12.1 lb), and has a wingspan from 1.8–2.5 m (5.9–8.2 ft).[7] Throughout most of its range, the brown pelican is an unmistakable bird. Like all pelicans, it has a very long bill measuring about 34 cm (13 in) in length.[8] The lower mandible is blackish, with a greenish-black gular pouch[9] at the bottom for draining water when it scoops out prey.[10] The adult has a white head and neck, with a yellowish wash on the crown.[11] The breast and belly are dark,[12] and the legs and feet black.[9] It has a grayish white bill tinged with brown and intermixed with pale carmine spots.[9] The crest is short and pale reddish-brown in color.[9] The back, rump, and tail are streaked with gray and dark brown, sometimes with a rusty hue.[9]

The juvenile is similar, but is grayish-brown overall and has paler underparts.[13] The plumage of the male is similar to a fully adult female, although the male's head feathers are rather rigid.[9]

The brown pelican is readily distinguished from the American white pelican, by its non-white plumage, smaller size, and habit of diving for fish from the air, as opposed to co-operative fishing from the surface.[14] Along with the Peruvian pelican, it is the only true marine pelican species.[15]

The adult brown pelican is silent and rarely emits a low croak, while the young frequently squeals.[15]

Distribution and habitat

Brown pelican in California, U.S.

The brown pelican lives on the Atlantic Gulf and Pacific coasts in the Americas.[16] On the Atlantic Coast, it is found from Nova Scotia to Venezuela, and to the mouth of the Amazon River.[17] Along the Pacific Coast, it is found from British Columbia to northern Peru (populations found further south are now regarded as a separate species, the Peruvian pelican), and south central Chile, including the Galapagos Islands.[17] After nesting, North American birds move in flocks further north along the coasts, returning to warmer waters for winter.[18] In the non-breeding season, it is found as far north as Canada, and as far south as Tierra del Fuego in Chile.[1] It is fairly common along the coast of California, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, the West Indies, and many Caribbean islands, as far south to Guyana.[19] Along the Gulf coast, it inhabits Alabama, Texas, Florida, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Mexico, and is rarely also found in New Mexico.[20][17]

In the 1940s, with the advent and widespread use of pesticides such as DDT, the brown pelican populations plummeted due to the lack of breeding success. By the 1960s, it had nearly disappeared along the Gulf Coast and experienced almost complete reproductive failure in southern California, due to the use of DDT in the United States. In 1972, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) banned the use of DDT in the United States and restricted the use of other pesticides. Since then, there has been a decrease in the level of chemical contaminants in pelican eggs, and a corresponding increase in nesting success. The Louisiana Department of Wildlife and Fisheries’ reintroduction program from 1968 to 1980 re-established the brown pelican, which restored the population numbers in Texas and California. In 1985, the brown pelican population in the eastern United States, including Florida, Georgia, Alabama, South Carolina, and points northward along the Atlantic Coast, had increased.[17]

The brown pelican primarily inhabits marine subtidal, warm estuarine, and marine pelagic waters.[21] It is also found in mangrove swamps, and prefers shallow waters especially near salty bays and beaches.[21] It avoids the open sea,[1] seldom venturing more than 20 miles into the sea.[17] Some immature birds may stray to inland freshwater lakes. Its range may also overlap with the Peruvian pelican in some areas along the Pacific coast of South America. It is a colonial species, forming large colonies,[16] with some colonies being maintained over several years.[1] It mostly nests on the ground, sometimes on cliffs, and less often in bushes or small trees.[1] It roosts on rocks, water, rocky cliffs, piers, jetties, sand beaches, and mudflats.[21]

Behavior

Showing throat pouch

Pelicans are very gregarious birds; they live in flocks of both sexes throughout the year.[22] They are exceptionally buoyant due to the internal air sacks beneath their skin and in their bones, and as graceful in the air as they are clumsy on land.[23] In level flight, pelicans fly in groups, with their heads held back on their shoulders, the bills resting on their folded necks.[24] They may fly in a "V", but usually in regular lines or single file, often low over the water's surface.[25]

Feeding

The brown pelican is a piscivore, primarily feeding on fish.[26] It occasionally forges on amphibians. Menhaden may locally account for 90% of its diet.[27] The anchovy supply is particularly important to the brown pelican's nesting success.[28] However, its preferred prey is usually commercially fished species.[29] Other fish preyed on with some regularity includes pigfish, pinfish, herring, sheepshead, silversides, mullets, sardines, and minnows, and it sometimes also eats crustaceans, usually prawns.[30][31]

As the brown pelican flies at a height of sometimes up to 60–70 ft (18–21 m) above the ocean, it can spot a school of fish.[30] When foraging, it dives bill-first like a kingfisher,[32] often submerging completely below the surface momentarily as it snaps up prey.[33] Upon surfacing, it spills the water from the throat pouch before swallowing its catch.[33] Only the Peruvian pelican shares this active foraging style, while other pelicans forage more inactively by scooping up corralled fish while swimming on the water surface. It is an occasional target of kleptoparasitism by other fish-eating birds such as gulls, skuas, and frigatebirds.[29] A single adult pelican can eat up to 1.8 kg (4.0 lb) each day.[34] Today, in many coastal areas, the brown pelican loafs around fishing ports and piers in hopes of being fed or stealing scraps of fish, especially if conditioned to do.[29]

Breeding

The brown pelican is a monogamous breeder within a breeding season, but does not pair for life.[35] Nesting season peaks during March and April.[36] The male choses a nesting site and performs a display of head movements which attracts the female.[16] The major courtship display such as head swaying, bowing, turning, and upright are performed by both male and female at the proposed nest site. It may also be accompanied by low raaa calls.[35]

Once a pair forms a bond, overt communication between them is minimal. It nests in colonies, in secluded area, often on islands, vegetated spots among sand dunes, thickets of shrubs and trees, and often in mangroves further south.[13] Nesting territories are clumped, and individual territories may be within 1 m (3.3 ft) of neighborhood. Nests are constructed in trees, bushes, or on the ground in shallow scrapes or on mounds of debris with depressions at the top.[37][13] They are usually built by the female from reeds, leaves, pebbles, and sticks,[38] and consist of feather-lined impressions protected with a 10–25 cm (3.9–9.8 in) rim of soil and debris,[15] on an elevation of 3–10 ft (0.91–3.05 m) above the ground.[13] They can be up to 76 cm (30 in) in wide and 23 cm (9.1 in) high on the outside, with an interior space measuring up to 30 cm (12 in) in width and 10 cm (3.9 in) in depth.[39] Renesting may occur if eggs are lost from the nest early in the breeding season.[35]

Juvenile brown pelican in flight, Bodega Head, California

There are usually two to three, or sometimes even four, oval eggs in a clutch, and only one brood is raised per year.[40][13] The egg is chalky white,[36] and can measure about 76 mm (3.0 in) in length and 51 mm (2.0 in) in width.[13] Incubation takes 28 to 30 days with both sexes sharing duties, keeping the eggs warm by holding them on or under their webbed feet.[13] It takes 28 to 30 days for the eggs to hatch,[13] and about 63 days to fledge.[40] They newly hatched children are pink and weigh about 60 g (0.13 lb).[38][35] Within 4 to 14 days, they turn grey or black.[38] After that, they develop a coat of white, black or greyish down.[38] Fledging success may be as high as 100% for the first hatched chick, 60% for the second chick, and just 6% for the third chick.[35] Hybridization between brown and white pelicans is possible, and one such hybrid offspring was on display at the National Zoological Park in Washington D.C., in 1937.[15]

The parents regurgitate predigested fish on the nest floor for the young to forage upon, and later switch to whole fish when the young are big enough.[39] After about 35 days, the young ventures out of the nest by walking.[15] Six to nine weeks after hatching, juveniles leave the nest and gather into small groups known as pods.[13] The young start flying about 71 to 88 days after hatching.[40] The adults remain with them until sometimes afterwards and continue to feed them.[13] In the 8–10 month period they are cared for, the nestling pelicans are fed by regurgitated, partially digested food of around 70 kg (150 lb) of fish.[41] The young reach sexual maturity (and full adult plumage) at anywhere from three to five years of age.[42]

Nest predators and hazards

Predation is occasional at colonies and predators of eggs, young and the rare adult pelicans can include gulls, raptors (especially bald eagles), foxes, skunks, vultures, and feral cats.[43][37] In areas where their ranges overlap, American alligators may sometimes pick off fledging pelicans. Predation is likely reduced if the colony is on an island. Like all pelicans, brown pelicans are highly sensitive to disturbances by humans (often tourists or fishermen) at their nests, and may even abandon their nests.[29] Due to their size, non-nesting adults are rarely predated.[44]

Depictions in culture

Flag of Louisiana prominently displaying the brown pelican

In 1902, the brown pelican was made a part of the official Louisiana seal and, 10 years later in 1912, the pelican and her young adorned the Flag of Louisiana as well.[45] One of Louisiana's nicknames is "The Pelican State".[46] In 1966, it became the state bird of Louisiana, to specifically designate the brown pelican, Pelecanus occidentalis occidentalis.[47] It is now a staple of crowded coastal regions and is tolerated to varying degrees by fishermen and boatmen. It is the national bird of Saint Martin, Barbados, Saint Kitts and Nevis, and the Turks and Caicos Islands.[48] It is also one of the mascots of Tulane University and is present on its seal.[49] The National Basketball Association (NBA)'s New Orleans Pelicans are named in the honor of Louisiana's state bird.[50][51]

In the 1993 film The Pelican Brief, a legal brief speculates the assassins of two supreme court justices were motivated by a desire to drill for oil on a Louisiana marshland, a habitat of an endangered species of brown pelicans. In 1998, American conductor David Woodard performed a requiem for a California brown pelican on the berm crest of a beach where the animal had fallen.[52] A brown pelican (voiced by Geoffrey Rush in an Australian accent) was illustrated as a friendly, virtuous talking character named Nigel, in the animated children's film Finding Nemo,[53] set in the Pacific Ocean near Australia, although only the Australian pelican is known to occur in that country. It is also present on the crest of the University of the West Indies.[54]

Status and conservation

Since 1988, the brown pelican has been rated as least concern on the IUCN Red List of Endangered species.[1] This was on the basis of its large range—greater than 20,000 km2 (7700 mi2)—and an increasing population trend.[1] The population size is also well beyond the threshold for vulnerable species.[1] It was listed under the United States Endangered Species Act from 1970 to 2009 as, in the early 1970s, pesticides like DDT and dieldrin threatened its future in southeastern United States and California.[55] A research group from the University of Tampa headed by Dr. Ralph Schreiber conducted research in Tampa Bay, in the St Petersburg city of Florida, and found that DDT caused the pelican eggshells to be too thin and incapable of supporting the embryo to maturity.[56] As a result of this research, DDT use was banned in Florida followed by the rest of the United States, in 1972.[55][57] This was because the brown pelican suffered reproductive failures and population decline due to the pollutants.[55] Since then, the brown pelican population has increased rapidly.[13] Current estimates place the global population at 650,000 individuals.[58] It is still listed as endangered in the Pacific Coast portion of its range and in Central and Southern America. Although the U. S. Gulf Coast populations in Texas and Louisiana are still listed as endangered, they were recently estimated at nearly 12,000 breeding pairs.[17] From 1968 to 1980, the Louisiana Department of Wildlife and Fisheries’ reintroduction program re-established the brown pelican in the United States, and improved reproduction and natural recolonization restored the population historic numbers in California and Texas.[17] In 1903, Theodore Roosevelt set aside Pelican Island, now known as Pelican Island National Wildlife Refugee, to solely protect the brown pelican from hunters.[59] Along with the American white pelican, it is also protected under the Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918.[60]

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 BirdLife International (2012). "Pelecanus occidentalis". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2013.2. International Union for Conservation of Nature. Archived from the original on 2016-11-03. Retrieved 26 November 2013.
  2. ↑ Museum, United States National (1941). Proceedings of the United States National Museum. Smithsonian Institution Press. p. 180.
  3. 1 2 3 Kennedy, Martyn; Taylor, Scott A.; Nádvorník, Petr; Spencer, Hamish G. (January 2013). "The phylogenetic relationships of the extant pelicans inferred from DNA sequence data". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 66 (1): 215–222. ISSN 1095-9513. PMID 23059726. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2012.09.034.
  4. ↑ Grzimek, Bernhard; Schlager, Neil (2003). Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia, Volume 8: Birds I. Gale. p. 231. ISBN 9780787657840.
  5. ↑ Hoyo, Josep del; Elliott, Andrew; Sargatal, Jordi; Cabot, José (2009). Handbook of the birds of the world. Lynx Edicions. p. 311. ISBN 9788487334108.
  6. ↑ Bond, James (1999). A Field Guide to the Birds of the West Indies. United States: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. pp. 23–24. ISBN 0618002103.
  7. ↑ "Brown Pelican: The Animal Files". www.theanimalfiles.com. Archived from the original on 2017-06-20. Retrieved 2017-07-29.
  8. ↑ Kay, James Ellsworth De (1844). Zoology of New-York, Or the New-York Fauna: Birds. United States: Carroll and Cook, printers to the Assembly. pp. 294–295.
  9. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Reports of Explorations and Surveys to Ascertain the Most Practicable and Economical Route for a Railroad from the Mississipi River to the Pacific Ocean. 1860. p. 266.
  10. ↑ del Hoyo, J; Elliot, A; Sargatal, J (1996). Handbook of the Birds of the World. 3. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions. ISBN 84-87334-20-2.
  11. ↑ Latta, Steven; Rimmer, Christopher; Keith, Allan; Wiley, James; Raffaele, Herbert A.; McFarland, Kent; Fernandez, Eladio (2010). Birds of the Dominican Republic and Haiti. United States: Princeton University Press. p. 42. ISBN 1400834104.
  12. ↑ Maehr, David S.; II, Herbert W. Kale (2005). Florida's Birds: A Field Guide and Reference. Florida: Pineapple Press Inc. p. 36. ISBN 9781561643356.
  13. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Fergus, Charles (2003). Wildlife of Virginia and Maryland and Washington. United States: Stackpole Books. p. 130. ISBN 9780811728218.
  14. ↑ Rea, Amadeo M. (2007). Wings in the Desert: A Folk Ornithology of the Northern Pimans. United States: University of Arizona Press. p. 108. ISBN 9780816524594.
  15. 1 2 3 4 5 Sweat, L.H. (2010). "Pelecanus occidentalis". www.sms.si.edu. Archived from the original on 2017-07-04. Retrieved 2017-07-31.
  16. 1 2 3 Anonymous (2005). The Encyclopedia of Birds. India: Parragon. p. 26. ISBN 9781405498517.
  17. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Brown Pelican Pelecanus occidentalis (PDF) (Report). U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2009. Retrieved 10 July 2015.  This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
  18. ↑ Kaufman, Kenn (October 2001). Lives of North American Birds. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ISBN 0618159886.
  19. ↑ Corps of Engineers, United States Army (2004). Port of the Americas, Municipalities of Guayanilla-Penuelas and Ponce: Environmental Impact Statement. United States: Northwestern University. p. 38.
  20. ↑ Riparian and Aquatic Habitat Management in the Taos Field Office -- New Mexico: Environmental Impact Statement. 1999.
  21. 1 2 3 Bureau of Reclamation, United States (2002). Imperial Irrigation District Water Conservation and Transfer Project and Draft Habitat Conservation Plan: Environmental Impact Statement. United States: Northwestern University. pp. 25–26.
  22. ↑ The Audubon Bulletin. Illinois Audubon Society. 1958.
  23. ↑ Editors, Britannica; inc, Encyclopaedia Britannica (2003). The New Encyclopaedia Britannica: Macropaedia : Knowledge in depth. Encyclopaedia Britannica. ISBN 9780852299616.
  24. ↑ Oberholser, Harry Church (1974-01-01). The bird life of Texas. University of Texas Press. ISBN 9780292707115.
  25. ↑ Hall, Derek (2004). Encyclopedia of North American Birds. Thunder Bay Press. ISBN 9781592231904.
  26. ↑ Region, United States Minerals Management Service Pacific OCS; Sciences, University of California, Santa Cruz Institute of Marine; Observatory, Point Reyes Bird; Division, Science Applications International Corporation Applied Environmental Science (1987). Final report, California seabird ecology study. Institute of Marine Sciences, University of California.
  27. ↑ New Orleans to Venice Hurricane Protection and Barrier Features: Environmental Impact Statement. 1975.
  28. ↑ Anderson, Daniel W.; Gress, Franklin; Mais, Kenneth F.; Kelly, Paul R. (1980). "Brown Pelicans as Anchovy Stock Indicators and their Relationships to Commercial Fishing" (PDF). CalCOFI Reports. 21: 54–61.
  29. 1 2 3 4 Brown Pelican. Smithsonian's National Zoological Park
  30. 1 2 Vegetation Treatments Using Herbicides on BLM Lands in Oregon: Environmental Impact Statement. 2010.
  31. ↑ Casotte Landing LNG Project, Bayou Casotte Energy LLC: Environmental Impact Statement. 2006.
  32. ↑ Dan A. Tallman; David L. Swanson; Jeffrey S. Palmer (2002). Birds of South Dakota (Hardcover ed.). Aberdeen, South dakota: Midstates/Quality Quick Print. p. 11. ISBN 0-929918-06-1.
  33. 1 2 Rylander, Kent (2010-01-01). The Behavior of Texas Birds. University of Texas Press. ISBN 9780292774728.
  34. ↑ ADW: Pelecanus occidentalis: INFORMATION. Animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu. Retrieved on 2014-04-01.
  35. 1 2 3 4 5 Nellis, David W. (2001). Common Coastal Birds of Florida and the Caribbean. Pineapple Press Inc. p. 99. ISBN 9781561641918.
  36. 1 2 East Harrison County Connector, Harrison County: Environmental Impact Statement. 2003.
  37. 1 2 San Diego Harbor Deepening Project: Environmental Impact Statement. 2003.
  38. 1 2 3 4 Campbell, Bruce; Lack, Elizabeth (2013-06-27). A Dictionary of Birds. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 9781408138397.
  39. 1 2 Anonymous (2013). "Brown Pelican". www.allaboutbirds.org. Archived from the original on 2016-11-13. Retrieved 2017-07-31.
  40. 1 2 3 Construction, Maintenance and Operation of Tactical Infrastructure, Rio Grande Valley Sector: Environmental Impact Statement. 2007.
  41. ↑ Soper, Tony (1989). Oceans of Birds. David & Charles. ISBN 9780715391990.
  42. ↑ Gage, Laurie J.; Duerr, Rebecca S. (2008-02-04). Hand-Rearing Birds. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 9780470376300.
  43. ↑ Brown Pelican. The Animal Files. Retrieved on 2014-04-01.
  44. ↑ Brown Pelican. Smithsonian Marine Station at Fort Pierce (2010-09-28).
  45. ↑ Louisiana Conservationist. Louisiana Wildlife and Fisheries Department. 1969.
  46. ↑ Ryan, Mary Meghan (2013-10-25). State Profiles 2013: The Population and Economy of Each U.S. State. Bernan Press. ISBN 9781598886412.
  47. ↑ Capace, Nancy (1999-01-01). Encyclopedia of Louisiana. Somerset Publishers, Inc. ISBN 9780403098163.
  48. ↑ Minahan, James (2009-12-23). The Complete Guide to National Symbols and Emblems [2 Volumes]. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 9780313344978.
  49. ↑ "Brown Pelican | The Common Pelican of America". 2017. Archived from the original on 2017-07-06. Retrieved 2017-07-06.
  50. ↑ "Benson Family Unveils New Orleans Pelicans Colors and Logos" (Press release). New Orleans Pelicans. January 24, 2013. Retrieved February 28, 2017.
  51. ↑ "Hornets announce name change to Pelicans". National Basketball Association. January 24, 2013. Retrieved February 28, 2017.
  52. ↑ Manzer, T., "Pelican's Goodbye is a Sad Song", Long Beach Press-Telegram, Oct. 2, 1998.
  53. ↑ Books, Barnes & Noble (2004). TV Guide film & video companion. Barnes & Noble Books. ISBN 9780760761045.
  54. ↑ Hall, Douglas (1998). The University of the West Indies: A Quinquagenary Calendar, 1948-1998. Press, University of the West Indies. ISBN 9789766400736.
  55. 1 2 3 Stinson, D. W. (2014). "Draft periodic status review for the Brown Pelican" (PDF). Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife, Olympia, Washington.
  56. ↑ Schreiber, Ralph W.; Risebrough, Robert W. (June 1972). "Studies of the Brown Pelican". The Wilson Bulletin. 84 (2): 119–135 – via JSTOR.
  57. ↑ National Parks & Conservation Magazine. National Parks & Conservation Association. 1974.
  58. ↑ Cappiello, Dina (November 12, 2009). "Brown pelicans off endangered species list". Associated Press.
  59. ↑ Doub, J. Peyton (2016-04-19). The Endangered Species Act: History, Implementation, Successes, and Controversies. CRC Press. ISBN 9781466507395.
  60. ↑ Majumdar, Shyamal K.; Brenner, Fred J.; Rhoads, Ann Fowler (June 1986). Endangered and threatened species programs in Pennsylvania and other states: causes, issues, and management. Pennsylvania Academy of Science. ISBN 9780960667055.
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