Blood alcohol content

Blood alcohol content
Medical diagnostics

LOINC 5639-0, 5640-8, 15120-9, 56478-1

Blood alcohol content (BAC), also called blood alcohol concentration, blood ethanol concentration, or blood alcohol level, is most commonly used as a metric of alcohol intoxication for legal or medical purposes.

Blood alcohol concentration is usually expressed as a percentage of ethanol in the blood in units of mass of alcohol per volume of blood or mass of alcohol per mass of blood, depending on the country. For instance, in North America a BAC of 0.1 (0.1% or one tenth of one percent) means that there are 0.10 g of alcohol for every dL of blood.

Effects by blood alcohol content

Progressive effects of alcohol[1]
BAC (% by vol.) Behavior Impairment
0.001–0.029
  • Average individual appears normal
  • Subtle effects that can be detected with special tests
0.030–0.059
  • Mild euphoria
  • Relaxation
  • Joyousness
  • Talkativeness
  • Decreased inhibition
  • Concentration
0.060–0.099
  • Blunted feelings
  • Reduced sensitivity to pain
  • Euphoria
  • Disinhibition
  • Extraversion
  • Reasoning
  • Depth perception
  • Peripheral vision
  • Glare recovery
0.100–0.199
  • Over-expression
  • Boisterousness
  • Possibility of nausea and vomiting
  • Reflexes
  • Reaction time
  • Gross motor control
  • Staggering
  • Slurred speech
  • Temporary erectile dysfunction
0.200–0.299
  • Nausea
  • Vomiting
  • Emotional swings
  • Anger or sadness
  • Partial loss of understanding
  • Impaired sensations
  • Decreased libido
  • Possibility of stupor
  • Severe motor impairment
  • Loss of consciousness
  • Memory blackout
0.300–0.399
0.400–0.500
  • Severe central nervous system depression
  • Coma
  • Possibility of death
>0.50
  • High possibility of death

Estimated blood alcohol content by intake

To calculate estimated peak blood alcohol concentration (EBAC), a variation, including drinking period in hours, of the Widmark formula was used. The formula is:[2]

where :

Regarding metabolism (MR) in the formula; Females demonstrated a higher average rate of elimination (mean, 0.017; range, 0.014-0.021 g/210 L) than males (mean, 0.015; range, 0.013-0.017 g/210 L). Female subjects on average had a higher percentage of body fat (mean, 26.0; range, 16.7-36.8%) than males (mean, 18.0; range, 10.2-25.3%).[3] Additionally, men are, on average, heavier than women but it is not strictly accurate to say that the water content of a person alone is responsible for the dissolution of alcohol within the body, because alcohol does dissolve in fatty tissue as well. When it does, a certain amount of alcohol is temporarily taken out of the blood and briefly stored in the fat. For this reason, most calculations of alcohol to body mass simply use the weight of the individual, and not specifically his/her water content. Finally, it is speculated that the bubbles in sparkling wine may speed up alcohol intoxication by helping the alcohol to reach the bloodstream faster. A study conducted at the University of Surrey in the United Kingdom gave subjects equal amounts of flat and sparkling wines which contained the same levels of alcohol. After 5 minutes following consumption, the group that had the sparkling wine had 54 milligrams of alcohol in their blood while the group that had the same sparkling wine, only flat, had 39 milligrams.[4]

Examples:

Standard drink chart (U.S.)[5]
Alcohol Amount (ml) Amount (fl oz) Serving size Alcohol (% by vol.) Alcohol
80 proof liquor 44 1.5 One shot 40 0.6 US fl oz (18 ml)
Table wine 148 5 One glass 12 0.6 US fl oz (18 ml)
Beer 355 12 One can/bottle 5 0.6 US fl oz (18 ml)

Note: This chart defines a drink as 14g of ethanol, while the formula defines a drink as 10g of ethanol.

Standard Drink Sizes (Australia)[6]

Male
Female 		Approximate blood alcohol percentage (by vol.)[7]
One drink has 0.5 US fl oz (15 ml) alcohol by volume
Drinks Body weight
40 kg 45 kg 55 kg 64 kg 73 kg 82 kg 91 kg 100 kg 109 kg
90 lb 100 lb 120 lb 140 lb 160 lb 180 lb 200 lb 220 lb 240 lb
1 –
0.05 		0.04
0.05 		0.03
0.04 		0.03
0.03 		0.02
0.03 		0.02
0.03 		0.02
0.02 		0.02
0.02 		0.02
0.02
2 –
0.10 		0.08
0.09 		0.06
0.08 		0.05
0.07 		0.05
0.06 		0.04
0.05 		0.04
0.05 		0.03
0.04 		0.03
0.04
3 –
0.15 		0.11
0.14 		0.09
0.11 		0.08
0.10 		0.07
0.09 		0.06
0.08 		0.06
0.07 		0.05
0.06 		0.05
0.06
4 –
0.20 		0.15
0.18 		0.12
0.15 		0.11
0.13 		0.09
0.11 		0.08
0.10 		0.08
0.09 		0.07
0.08 		0.06
0.08
5 –
0.25 		0.19
0.23 		0.16
0.19 		0.13
0.16 		0.12
0.14 		0.11
0.13 		0.09
0.11 		0.09
0.10 		0.08
0.09
6 –
0.30 		0.23
0.27 		0.19
0.23 		0.16
0.19 		0.14
0.17 		0.13
0.15 		0.11
0.14 		0.10
0.12 		0.09
0.11
7 –
0.35 		0.26
0.32 		0.22
0.27 		0.19
0.23 		0.16
0.20 		0.15
0.18 		0.13
0.16 		0.12
0.14 		0.11
0.13
8 –
0.40 		0.30
0.36 		0.25
0.30 		0.21
0.26 		0.19
0.23 		0.17
0.20 		0.15
0.18 		0.14
0.17 		0.13
0.15
9 –
0.45 		0.34
0.41 		0.28
0.34 		0.24
0.29 		0.21
0.26 		0.19
0.23 		0.17
0.20 		0.15
0.19 		0.14
0.17
10 –
0.51 		0.38
0.45 		0.31
0.38 		0.27
0.32 		0.23
0.28 		0.21
0.25 		0.19
0.23 		0.17
0.21 		0.16
0.19
Subtract approximately 0.01 every 40 minutes after drinking.

Binge drinking

The National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA) define the term "binge drinking" as a pattern of drinking that brings a person’s blood alcohol concentration (BAC) to 0.08 grams percent or above. This typically happens when men consume 5 or more drinks, and when women consume 4 or more drinks, in about 2 hours.[8]

Units of measurement

There are several different units in use around the world for defining blood alcohol concentration. Each is defined as either a mass of alcohol per volume of blood or a mass of alcohol per mass of blood (never a volume per volume). 1 milliliter of blood has a mass of approximately 1.06 grams. Because of this, units by volume are similar but not identical to units by mass. In the U.S. the concentration unit 1% w/v (percent mass/volume, equivalent to 10 g/l or 1 g per 100 ml) is in use.[9] This is not to be confused with the amount of alcohol measured on the breath, as with a breathalyzer. The amount of alcohol measured on the breath is generally accepted as proportional to the amount of alcohol present in the blood at a rate of 1:2100. Therefore, a breathalyzer measurement of 0.10 mg/L of breath alcohol converts to 0.0001×2100 g/10dL, or 0.021 g/dL of blood alcohol (the units of the BAC in the United States). While a variety of units (or sometimes lack thereof) is used throughout the world, many countries use the g/L unit, which does not create confusion as percentages do. Usual units are highlighted in the table below.

Reference Unit Dimensions Equivalent to Used in
BAC by volume 1 percent (%) 1/100 g/mL = 1 g/dL 9.43 mg/g, 217.4 mmol/L United States, Australia, Canada
1 permille (‰) 1/1000 g/mL = 1 g/L 0.943 mg/g, 21.7 mmol/L Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, France, Latvia, Lithuania, Netherlands, Poland, Romania, Spain, Switzerland, Turkey
1 basis point (‱) 1/10,000 g/mL = 10 mg/100 mL 94.3 ppm, 2.17 mmol/L United Kingdom
BAC by mass 1 percent (%) 1/100 g/g = 1 cg/g 1.06 cg/mL, 230 mmol/L
1 permille (‰) 1/1000 g/g = 1 mg/g 1.06 mg/mL, 23 mmol/L Finland, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Germany, Ireland, Russian Federation
1 part per million (ppm) 1/1,000,000 g/g = 1 μg/g 1.06 μg/mL, 23 μmol/L
Map of Europe showing countries' blood alcohol limits as defined in g/dl for the general population.

For purposes of law enforcement, blood alcohol content is used to define intoxication and provides a rough measure of impairment. Although the degree of impairment may vary among individuals with the same blood alcohol content, it can be measured objectively and is therefore legally useful and difficult to contest in court. Most countries disallow operation of motor vehicles and heavy machinery above prescribed levels of blood alcohol content. Operation of boats and aircraft are also regulated.

The alcohol level at which a person is considered legally impaired varies by country. The list below gives limits by country. These are typically blood alcohol content limits for the operation of a vehicle.

Zero effective tolerance

It is illegal to have any measurable alcohol in the blood while driving in these countries. Most jurisdictions have a tolerance slightly higher than zero to account for false positives and naturally occurring alcohol in the body. Some of the following jurisdictions have a general prohibition of alcohol.


0.02%
0.03%
0.04%
0.05%
0.06%
0.07%
0.08%
0.1%

Limits by country (BrAC: breath alcohol content)

In certain countries, alcohol limits are determined by the breath alcohol content (BrAC), not to be confused with blood alcohol content (BAC).

Other limitation schemes

Test assumptions

Blood alcohol tests assume the individual being tested is average in various ways. For example, on average the ratio of blood alcohol content to breath alcohol content (the partition ratio) is 2100 to 1. In other words, there are 2100 parts of alcohol in the blood for every part in the breath. However, the actual ratio in any given individual can vary from 1300:1 to 3100:1, or even more widely.[43][44] This ratio varies not only from person to person, but within one person from moment to moment. Thus a person with a true blood alcohol level of .08% but a partition ratio of 1700:1 at the time of testing would have a .10 reading on a Breathalyzer calibrated for the average 2100:1 ratio.

A similar assumption is made in urinalysis. When urine is analyzed for alcohol, the assumption is that there are 1.3 parts of alcohol in the urine for every 1 part in the blood, even though the actual ratio can vary greatly.

Breath alcohol testing further assumes that the test is post-absorptive—that is, that the absorption of alcohol in the subject's body is complete.[45] If the subject is still actively absorbing alcohol, their body has not reached a state of equilibrium where the concentration of alcohol is uniform throughout the body. Most forensic alcohol experts reject test results during this period as the amounts of alcohol in the breath will not accurately reflect a true concentration in the blood.

Metabolism and excretion

Alcohol is absorbed throughout the gastrointestinal tract, but more slowly in the stomach than in the small or large intestine. For this reason, alcohol consumed with food is absorbed more slowly, because it spends a longer time in the stomach. Furthermore, alcohol dehydrogenase is present in the stomach lining. After absorption, the alcohol passes to the liver through the hepatic portal vein, where it undergoes a first pass of metabolism before entering the general bloodstream.[46]

Alcohol is removed from the bloodstream by a combination of metabolism, excretion, and evaporation. The relative proportion disposed of in each way varies from person to person, but typically about 95% is metabolized by the liver. The remainder of the alcohol is eliminated through excretion in breath, urine, sweat, feces, milk and saliva.[47] Excretion into urine typically begins after about 40 minutes, whereas metabolisation commences as soon as the alcohol is absorbed, and even before alcohol levels have risen in the brain.

Alcohol is metabolized mainly by the group of six enzymes collectively called alcohol dehydrogenase. These convert the ethanol into acetaldehyde (an intermediate more toxic than ethanol). The enzyme acetaldehyde dehydrogenase then converts the acetaldehyde into non-toxic acetic acid.

Many physiologically active materials are removed from the bloodstream (whether by metabolism or excretion) at a rate proportional to the current concentration, so that they exhibit exponential decay with a characteristic halflife (see pharmacokinetics). This is not true for alcohol, however. Typical doses of alcohol actually saturate the enzymes' capacity, so that alcohol is removed from the bloodstream at an approximately constant rate. This rate varies considerably between individuals. Another sex based difference is in the elimination of alcohol. People under 25, women[48] or with liver disease may process alcohol more slowly. False High (BAC) readings are related to patients with proteinuria and hematuria, due to kidney-liver metabolism and failure (for example, Hematuria 1+ protenuria 1+ )

Such persons have impaired acetaldehyde dehydrogenase, which causes acetaldehyde levels to peak higher, producing more severe hangovers and other effects such as flushing and tachycardia. Conversely, members of certain ethnicities that traditionally did not use alcoholic beverages have lower levels of alcohol dehydrogenases and thus "sober up" very slowly, but reach lower aldehyde concentrations and have milder hangovers. Rate of detoxification of alcohol can also be slowed by certain drugs which interfere with the action of alcohol dehydrogenases, notably aspirin, furfural (which may be found in fusel alcohol), fumes of certain solvents, many heavy metals, and some pyrazole compounds. Also suspected of having this effect are cimetidine (Tagamet), ranitidine (Zantac), and acetaminophen (Tylenol) (paracetamol).

Currently, the only known substance that can increase the rate of metabolism of alcohol is fructose. The effect can vary significantly from person to person, but a 100 g dose of fructose has been shown to increase alcohol metabolism by an average of 80%. Fructose also increases false positives of high BAC ratio readings in anyone with proteinuria and hematuria, due to kidney-liver metabolism.[49]

Full stomachs

Alcohol absorption can be slowed by ingesting alcohol on a full stomach.[50][51]

Carbonated beverages

Alcohol in carbonated beverages is absorbed faster than alcohol in non-carbonated drinks.[51][52] Another study also confirmed this, conducted at the University of Surrey in the United Kingdom gave subjects equal amounts of flat and sparkling champagne which contained the same levels of alcohol. After 5 minutes following consumption, the group that had the sparkling wine had 54 milligrams of alcohol in their blood while the group that had the same wine, only flat, had 39 milligrams.[4]

Stress

Being under stress causes alcohol to metabolize faster.[51][53][54]

Retrograde extrapolation

Retrograde extrapolation is the mathematical process by which someone's blood alcohol concentration at the time of driving is estimated by projecting backwards from a later chemical test. This involves estimating the absorption and elimination of alcohol in the interim between driving and testing. The rate of elimination in the average person is commonly estimated at .015 to .020 grams per deciliter per hour (g/dl/h),[55] although again this can vary from person to person and in a given person from one moment to another. Metabolism can be affected by numerous factors, including such things as body temperature, the type of alcoholic beverage consumed, and the amount and type of food consumed.

In an increasing number of states, laws have been enacted to facilitate this speculative task: the blood alcohol content at the time of driving is legally presumed to be the same as when later tested. There are usually time limits put on this presumption, commonly two or three hours, and the defendant is permitted to offer evidence to rebut this presumption.

Forward extrapolation can also be attempted. If the amount of alcohol consumed is known, along with such variables as the weight and sex of the subject and period and rate of consumption, the blood alcohol level can be estimated by extrapolating forward. Although subject to the same infirmities as retrograde extrapolation—guessing based upon averages and unknown variables—this can be relevant in estimating BAC when driving and/or corroborating or contradicting the results of a later chemical test.

Highest recorded blood alcohol level/content

There have been reported cases of blood alcohol content higher than 1%:

References

Notes

  1. ↑ A hybridizing of effects as described at Alcohol's Effects Archived May 5, 2007, at the Wayback Machine. from Virginia Tech and Federal Aviation Regulation (CFR) 91.17: Alcohol and Flying (hosted on FlightPhysical.com)
  2. 1 2 Andersson, Agneta; Wiréhn, Ann-Britt; Ölvander, Christina; Ekman, Diana; Bendtsen, Preben (2009). "Alcohol use among university students in Sweden measured by an electronic screening instrument". BMC Public Health. 9: 229. PMC 2724514 Freely accessible. PMID 19594906. doi:10.1186/1471-2458-9-229.
  3. ↑ Cowan Jr, JM; Weathermon, A; McCutcheon, JR; Oliver, RD (1996). "Determination of volume of distribution for ethanol in male and female subjects". Journal of analytical toxicology. 20 (5): 287–90. PMID 8872236. doi:10.1093/jat/20.5.287.
  4. 1 2 G. Harding "A Wine Miscellany" pg 136–137, Clarkson Potter Publishing, New York 2005 ISBN 0-307-34635-8
  5. ↑ Based on the CDC standard of 0.6 fl oz alcohol per drink. CDC alcohol FAQ
  6. ↑ McBrien, Greg (4 August 2017). "Random Breath Tests in Australia - Everything you need to know". ADT Breathalysers Blog.
  7. ↑ BAC Charts Archived June 30, 2007, at the Wayback Machine. from Virginia Tech
  8. ↑ "Quick Stats: Binge Drinking." The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. April 2008..
  9. ↑ "Research Blood Alcohol Concentration – Drugs, Alcohol, and Tobacco". www.BookRags.com.
  10. ↑ "The Various Alcohol and Drug Related Prohibitions and Suspensions – Prohibitions and Suspensions – RoadSafetyBC".
  11. ↑ "Newsroom : Keeping Drivers Safe". news.ontario.ca.
  12. ↑ "Tolérance zéro pour les conducteurs de moins de 21 ans". La Presse.
  13. ↑ "Tolerancia cero: ni una cerveza si va a conducir". eltiempo.com.
  14. ↑ http://wsp.presidencia.gov.co/Normativa/Leyes/Documents/2013/LEY%201696%20DEL%2019%20DE%20DICIEMBRE%20DE%202013.pdf
  15. 1 2 "Alcohol and Driving". Ministry of Transport. Retrieved 2 July 2012.
  16. ↑ "Medvedev signs total drink driving ban". RIAN. 2010-07-23.
  17. 1 2 "Russian drivers to be allowed to have slight alcohol content in blood". Itar-tass. 2013-07-26.
  18. ↑ "Alcohol cero rige a partir de 2016".
  19. 1 2 "Alcohol".
  20. ↑ /d: LOV-1965-06-18-4 :d/ Lov om vegtrafikk (vegtrafikkloven)
  21. 1 2
  22. ↑ according to Section 185 of Motor Vehicles Act 1988. On first offence, the punishment is imprisonment of 6 months and/or fine of 2000 Indian Rupees (INR). If the second offence is committed within three years, the punishment is 2 years and/or fine of 3000 Indian Rupees (INR). The clause of 30 mg/dL was added by an amendment in 1994. It came into effect beginning 14 November 1994.
  23. ↑ http://www.npa.go.jp/annai/license_renewal/english.pdf The breath alcohol concentration limit for driving in Japan is 0.15 mg/l, which, assuming a breath alcohol to blood alcohol ratio of 1:2,100, is roughly equivalent to a BAC of 0.0315%. The penalties become even more severe at 0.25 mg/l, which is roughly equivalent to a BAC of 0.0525%.
  24. ↑ https://www.help.gv.at/Portal.Node/hlpd/public/content/4/Seite.042000.html Alkohol am Steuer, HELP.gv.at, of 19. January 2013, retr. 22. April 2013
  25. ↑ http://www.verkehrspsychologie.at/gesetzliche_grundlagen_fuehrerscheinentzug.htm Gesetzliche Grundlagen für den Führerscheinentzug (Alkohol), verkehrspsychologie.at, AAP – Angewandte Psychologie und Forschung GmbH, Wien, retr. 22. April 2013
  26. ↑ "Chart". driveandstayalive.com. Retrieved 2015-07-20.
  27. ↑ Driving law (hr)
  28. ↑ Between 0.05% and 0.08%, drivers can be fined €135 and have six points removed from their licence. Above 0.08%, the punishment is more severe with possible imprisonment of up to two years, heavy fines and licence suspension. "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2008-12-01. Retrieved 2008-06-23. (in French)
  29. ↑
  30. ↑ "BAC and BrAC Limits – International Alliance for Responsible Drinking". International Alliance for Responsible Drinking.
  31. ↑ "Quoi de neuf en 2014 ?".
  32. ↑ "Driving Under the Influence Unit".
  33. ↑ Drinking and Driving: SAAQ
  34. ↑ "The drink drive limit".
  35. ↑ /d: LOV-1998-06-26-47 :d/ Lov om fritids- og småbåter
  36. ↑ DOE – Biggest shake up in drink driving laws for forty years – Attwood
  37. 1 2 Driving In Singapore – Home Archived February 2, 2008, at the Wayback Machine.
  38. ↑ National Institute of Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism. http://alcoholpolicy.niaaa.nih.gov/Blood_Alcohol_Concentration_Limits_Adult_Operators_of_Noncommercial_Motor_Vehicles.html. Accessed on February 01, 2013.
  39. ↑ "Commercial Driver's License Program". Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration.
  40. ↑ "18 U.S.C. § 343  : US Code – Section 343: Presumptions". Findlaw.
  41. ↑ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-10-07. Retrieved 2009-11-28.
  42. ↑ "Alcohol and drug limits". Driving Tests Resources.
  43. ↑ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2012-06-24. Retrieved 2012-12-04.
  44. ↑ Alobaidi TA, Hill DW, Payne JP (1976). "Significance of variations in blood: breath partition coefficient of alcohol.". Br Med J. 2: 1479–81. PMC 1689868 Freely accessible. PMID 793681. doi:10.1136/bmj.2.6050.1479.
  45. ↑ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2013-01-12. Retrieved 2012-12-04.
  46. ↑ Alan J.Buglass, ed. (2011). Handbook of alcoholic beverages : technical, analytical and nutritional aspects. Chichester: Wiley. ISBN 978-0-470-97665-4. Retrieved 6 July 2013.
  47. ↑ Alcohol and the Human Body
  48. ↑ Thomasson, Holly R. (2002). "Gender Differences in Alcohol Metabolism". Recent Developments in Alcoholism. 12. pp. 163–72. ISBN 0-306-44921-8. doi:10.1007/0-306-47138-8_9.
  49. ↑ Fructose & ethanol
    • Carpenter, Thorne M.; Lee, Robert C (1937). "THE EFFECT OF FRUCTOSE ON THE METABOLISM OF ETHYL ALCOHOL IN MAN". Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics. 60 (3). Retrieved 23 June 2016.
    • Tygstrup, Niels; Winkler, Kjeld; Lundquist, Frank (1 May 1965). "The Mechanism of the Fructose Effect on the Ethanol Metabolism of the Human Liver*". Journal of Clinical Investigation. 44 (5): 817–830. PMC 292558 Freely accessible. PMID 14276139. doi:10.1172/JCI105194.
    • Patel, AR; Paton, AM; Rowan, T; Lawson, DH; Linton, AL (August 1969). "Clinical studies on the effect of laevulose on the rate of metabolism of ethyl alcohol.". Scottish medical journal. 14 (8): 268–71. PMID 5812044.
    • Lowenstein, LM; Simone, R; Boulter, P; Nathan, P (14 September 1970). "Effect of fructose on alcohol concentrations in the blood in man.". JAMA. 213 (11): 1899–901. PMID 4318655. doi:10.1001/jama.1970.03170370083021.
    • Pawan, GL (September 1972). "Metabolism of alcohol (ethanol) in man.". The Proceedings of the Nutrition Society. 31 (2): 83–9. PMID 4563296. doi:10.1079/pns19720020.
    • Thieden, HI; Grunnet, N; Damgaard, SE; Sestoft, L (October 1972). "Effect of fructose and glyceraldehyde on ethanol metabolism in human liver and in rat liver.". European Journal of Biochemistry / FEBS. 30 (2): 250–61. PMID 4145889. doi:10.1111/j.1432-1033.1972.tb02093.x.
    • Soterakis, J; Iber, FL (March 1975). "Increased rate of alcohol removal from blood with oral fructose and sucrose.". The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 28 (3): 254–7. PMID 1119423.
    • Rawat, AK (February 1977). "Effects of fructose and other substances on ethanol and acetaldehyde metabolism in man.". Research communications in chemical pathology and pharmacology. 16 (2): 281–90. PMID 847286.
    • Iber, FL (September 1977). "The effect of fructose on alcohol metabolism.". Archives of Internal Medicine. 137 (9): 1121. PMID 901079. doi:10.1001/archinte.137.9.1121.
    • Bode, JC; Bode, C; Thiele, D (1 February 1979). "Alcohol metabolism in man: effect of intravenous fructose infusion on blood ethanol elimination rate following stimulation by phenobarbital treatment or chronic alcohol consumption.". Klinische Wochenschrift. 57 (3): 125–30. PMID 439778. doi:10.1007/bf01476052.
    • Sprandel, U; Tröger, HD; Liebhardt, EW; Zöllner, N (1980). "Acceleration of ethanol elimination with fructose in man.". Nutrition and metabolism. 24 (5): 324–30. PMID 7443107. doi:10.1159/000176278.
    • Meyer, BH; Müller, FO; Hundt, HK (6 November 1982). "The effect of fructose on blood alcohol levels in man.". South African medical journal (Suid-Afrikaanse tydskrif vir geneeskunde). 62 (20): 719–21. PMID 6753183.
    • Crownover, BP; La Dine, J; Bradford, B; Glassman, E; Forman, D; Schneider, H; Thurman, RG (March 1986). "Activation of ethanol metabolism in humans by fructose: importance of experimental design.". The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics. 236 (3): 574–9. PMID 3950864.
    • Mascord, D; Smith, J; Starmer, GA; Whitfield, JB (1991). "The effect of fructose on alcohol metabolism and on the [lactate]/[pyruvate] ratio in man.". Alcohol and Alcoholism. 26 (1): 53–9. PMID 1854373.
    • Onyesom, I; Anosike, EO (June 2004). "Oral fructose-induced changes in blood ethanol oxidokinetic data among healthy Nigerians.". The Southeast Asian journal of tropical medicine and public health. 35 (2): 476–80. PMID 15691159.
    • Uzuegbu, UE; Onyesom, I (June 2009). "Fructose-induced increase in ethanol metabolism and the risk of Syndrome X in man.". Comptes rendus biologies. 332 (6): 534–8. PMID 19520316. doi:10.1016/j.crvi.2009.01.007.
  50. ↑ McBrien, Greg (4 August 2017). "Random Breath Tests in Australia - Everything you need to know". ADT Breathalysers Blog. Stomach – if you have just eaten, the food in your stomach will help absorb some of the alcohol, which means your BAC will rise slower.
  51. 1 2 3 "Absorption Rate Factors". BHS.UMN.edu. Archived from the original on 18 January 2013. When food is ingested, the pyloric valve at the bottom of the stomach will close in order to hold food in the stomach for digestion and thus keep the alcohol from reaching the small intestine. The larger the meal and closer in time to drinking, the lower the peak of alcohol concentration; some studies indicate up to a 20% reduction in peak blood alcohol level.
    Stress causes the stomach to empty directly into the small intestine, where alcohol is absorbed even faster.
    Liquor mixed with soda or other bubbly drinks speeds up the passage of alcohol from the stomach to the small intestine, which increases the speed of absorption.
  52. ↑ Roberts, C.; Robinson, S.P. (2007). "Alcohol concentration and carbonation of drinks: The effect on blood alcohol levels". Journal of Forensic and Legal Medicine. 14 (7): 398–405. PMID 17720590. doi:10.1016/j.jflm.2006.12.010.
  53. ↑ Holt S (1 February 1981). "Observations on the relation between alcohol absorption and the rate of gastric emptying". Can Med Assoc J. 124: 267–77, 297. PMC 1705129 Freely accessible. PMID 7459787.
  54. ↑ LEIKOLA A. "Influence of stress on alcohol intoxication in rats.". Q J Stud Alcohol. 23: 369–75. PMID 13929435.
  55. ↑ Montgomery, Mark R.; Reasor, Mark J. (1992). "Retrograde extrapolation of blood alcohol data: An applied approach". Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health. 36 (4): 281–92. PMID 1507264. doi:10.1080/15287399209531639.
  56. ↑ "Strona nie zosta�a znaleziona - B��d 404". www.eostroleka.pl. Retrieved 2017-04-13. replacement character in |title= at position 17 (help)
  57. ↑ Drunkest driver in SA arrested Sowetan
  58. ↑ Johnson, R (1982). "Survival After a Serum Ethanol Concentration of 11/2%". The Lancet. 320 (8312): 1394. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(82)91285-5.
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  63. ↑ "Informacje".
  64. ↑ Wu, Yen-Liang; Guo, How-Ran; Lin, Hung-Jung (2005). "Fatal alcohol immersion during the SARS epidemic in Taiwan". Forensic Science International. 149 (2–3): 287. PMID 15749375. doi:10.1016/j.forsciint.2004.06.014.
  65. ↑ Jones, AW (1999). "The Drunkest Drinking Driver in Sweden: Blood Alcohol Concentration 0.545% w/v". Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs. 60 (3): 400–6. PMID 10371269.
  66. ↑ Sowetan

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